High Temperature Metallography

613 Pages·1961·23.727 MB·English

by  M. G. Lozinskii (Auth.)

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HIGH TEMPERATURE
METALLOGRAPHY
by
M. G. LOZ1NSKII
Doctor of Technical Sciences
Institute of Machine Engineering
U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences^ Moscow
Translated by
L. HERDAN
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1961
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B I O G R A P H I C AL N O TE
MIKHAIL GRIGOR' EVICH LOZINSKII
Born 1909. At 15 he became apprentice electrician and later qualified
electrician at the SVETLANA Radio Valve Factory of Leningrad where he there-
after combined work with part-time study. Graduated in 1935 from the Kalinin
Polytechnical Institute of Leningrad (Electrical Engineering Faculty). Chief
Engineer of SVETLANA Factory during the Siege of Leningrad. Worked out the
theoretical principles and equipment for high-speed induction heating of
steel. Later transferred to a Moscow electronic engineering works. Awarded
in 1941 a Stalin Prize for his work on industrial applications of surface
hardening of steels by H. F. current. In 1944 began research at the USSR
Academy of Science under Acad. Gudtsov where he continued his studies on the
industrial applications of induction heating and of the properties of steels
under H. F. currents. From 1947 onwards evolved methods and equipment for the
study of microstructure and properties of metals at high temperatures in
vacuo. Obtained his degree of Candidate in Technical Sciences in 1941 and his
doctorate in 1954. Won several awards and medals for his work and published
close on 140 papers and books between 1936 and 1958. Has over 30 patents to
his credit.
ix
F O R E W O RD
TO THE ENGLISH EDITION
Metal scientists, metallurgists and specialists in other branches of
technical and physical knowledge, have in recent times begun to pay ever
increasing attention to the possibilities opened up by the methods of high
temperature metallography. With the development of these new methods and by
making use of the new apparatus and instruments, fresh and interesting results
have been obtained from researches into the microstructures and from the
determination of the physical properties of various metals and alloys within
wide ranges of temperature.
It can be said that the development of new instruments and of new
methods of experimentation, mainly from investigations at the institutes of
mechanical engineering of the Science Academy of the U.S.S.R., on the influ-
ence of such important factors as temperature, duration of experiments, alter-
native method of heating etc., on the structure and physical characteristics
of metals, have already resulted in benefits from the re-organization of
production at many industrial plants.
The author sincerely thanks Professor N.P. Mott and Dr. A. Peltham for
their kind assistance on the occasion of the publication of this book in
English and also expresses his thanks to the "Pergamon Press" for the high
standard of the translation and for the great effort they have made in pub-
lishing this book in so short a time.
Some unimportant corrections and a few additions have been made to the
text of the 1956 Russian edition as a result of work completed by the author
during 1956 and 1957.
He hopes that the acquaintance of large circles of readers with the
development of the new branches of investigation in Soviet Russia made possible
by the methods of high temperature metallography, will contribute to the
growth of the scientific investigation in these fields and strengtnen the
friendship and mutual understanding between English and Soviet learning.
Institut Mashinovedeniya M.G. Lozinskii.
Akademii Nauk C C C R Doctor of Technical Sciences
MOCKVA.
(Institute of Machine Engineering)
U S SR Academy of Sciences
Moscow.
xii
It is often said, and with good reason that science advances in spurts,
depending on the achievements of the methods available. With each progressive
advance in method we raise ourselves, as it were, on to the next rung of the
ladder whence we can survey a wider horizon and see things that, before, we
could not have seen. Academician I.P. Pavlov.
INTRODUCTION
One of the very important branches of science is the science of metals,
on the development of which depends, to a considerable extent, the rate of
progress in the construction of machines.
The increase in the demand for materials shows the need for new alloys
and new methods of production. This in turn is not possible without a thorough
investigation of the structure and properties of metals and alloys of varying
compositions at different temperatures. That is why ever greater attention is
being given in recent years to the adoption and utilization of new methods of
research. Even though for the study of metals at normal temperatures, science
possesses a sufficiently complete arsenal of methods of investigation, the
study of the characteristic behaviour of metals at high temperatures needs yet
to develop new methods and new apparatus. In this field, special importance
attaches to the investigation of the microstructure of metals at high tempera-
tures.
Only microscopical examination together with investigation of the various
properties of the specimens subjected to heating and cooling can make it pos-
sible to determine the relation between structural changes and the physical
and chemical condition of the metals under investigation as a function of
temperature, and to clarify the kinetics of the formation of the structures
having specific properties. The determination of the connexion between struc-
ture and properties during heating affords the means of producing new alloys
possessing, for example, high heat resisting qualities, which are of great
importance in the development of steam turbine construction, in jet propulsion
technique and in other fields.
Be this as it may, the study of the structural properties of metals at
high temperatures presents great difficulties, because the oxide film which
forms on the surface of the specimens during heating prevents observation of
their true structure by the effect on the measurement of their properties of
the difference between the physical and chemical characteristics of the original
material and that of the surface layer subjected to oxidation. Ttie formation
of visible films of oxide can be avoided, in many cases, by heating the
specimens under a low residual pressure i.e. in vacua of the order of 10"4 -
10"7 mm Hg.
xii
It is often said, and with good reason that science advances in spurts,
depending on the achievements of the methods available. With each progressive
advance in method we raise ourselves, as it were, on to the next rung of the
ladder whence we can survey a wider horizon and see things that, before, we
could not have seen. Academician I.P. Pavlov.
INTRODUCTION
One of the very important branches of science is the science of metals,
on the development of which depends, to a considerable extent, the rate of
progress in the construction of machines.
The increase in the demand for materials shows the need for new alloys
and new methods of production. This in turn is not possible without a thorough
investigation of the structure and properties of metals and alloys of varying
compositions at different temperatures. That is why ever greater attention is
being given in recent years to the adoption and utilization of new methods of
research. Even though for the study of metals at normal temperatures, science
possesses a sufficiently complete arsenal of methods of investigation, the
study of the characteristic behaviour of metals at high temperatures needs yet
to develop new methods and new apparatus. In this field, special importance
attaches to the investigation of the microstructure of metals at high tempera-
tures.
Only microscopical examination together with investigation of the various
properties of the specimens subjected to heating and cooling can make it pos-
sible to determine the relation between structural changes and the physical
and chemical condition of the metals under investigation as a function of
temperature, and to clarify the kinetics of the formation of the structures
having specific properties. The determination of the connexion between struc-
ture and properties during heating affords the means of producing new alloys
possessing, for example, high heat resisting qualities, which are of great
importance in the development of steam turbine construction, in jet propulsion
technique and in other fields.
Be this as it may, the study of the structural properties of metals at
high temperatures presents great difficulties, because the oxide film which
forms on the surface of the specimens during heating prevents observation of
their true structure by the effect on the measurement of their properties of
the difference between the physical and chemical characteristics of the original
material and that of the surface layer subjected to oxidation. Ttie formation
of visible films of oxide can be avoided, in many cases, by heating the
specimens under a low residual pressure i.e. in vacua of the order of 10"4 -
10"7 mm Hg.
High Temperature Vacuum Metallography xiii
The various aspects in metal science research based on the utilization of
the use of low residual pressures with a view to avoiding reaction of the air
or other gases with the surface of the heated specimen under investigation,
may be called "High Temperature Vacuum Metallography".
Many valuable investigations made by Academician G.V. Kurdumov and his
collaborators (52, 53, 54, 106, 107, 108) into the kinetics of the martensite
transformation were carried out by observing the changes in the structure of
specimens in vacuo, cooled to low temperatures of the order of -70 to -180°C
between which the martensite transformation occurs in the metal of some par-
ticular specimens. This work and also the later contribution of A.P. Gulyaev
and E.V. Petunin2/ (71, 73) by a similar method of investigation, can be clas-
sified in another group called "Low Temperature Vacuum Metallography".
It should be mentioned here that it is only during the last ten or twelve
years that the vacuum technique has developed so greatly in the Soviet Union.
The achievements in the production, measurement and maintenance of the vacuum
and of new forms of vacuum apparatus never previously produced in Russia such
as highly efficient pumps, metallic vacuum valves, ionic vacuum gauges and
other forms of equipment and instruments used in apparatus using low residual
pressure, have created a firm basis for the utilization of vacuum techniques
in the laboratory and in industry.
In the period referred to there has appeared in the Russian and other
literatures some fundamental work specially directed to the problems of the
theory and practice of vacuum technique, which have made it possible to pass
from the empirical to the systematic and calculated construction of vacuum
apparatus based on the formulae and laws established by practice (34, 87, 97,
102, 221, 252). Use of vacuum technique opens wide possibilities for the
development of investigations into the behaviour of metals at high temperatures.
As a first approximation, the many fields of this scientific endeavour could
be divided into two groups. In the first group must be included methods by
which the structures of metals and alloys are investigated at temperatures
ranging from room to the temperatures of fusion; in the second group are
included the various methods of investigating the properties of macro-and
micro-volumes of the heated specimens.
Table 1 gives the author's classification of the important fields
suitable for the utilization of the methods of high temperature vacuum
metallography. This table shows the possibilities opened up by these methods
for various investigations into the microstructure and properties of hot
metals and alloys.
The aim of this book is to acquaint readers working in the field of high
temperature metallography, or those interested in research, with the construc-
tion of apparatus, with methods of experimentation, and also with the results
already obtained regarding the microstructure and properties of materials at
xiv Introduction
high temperatures. The author believes that the information here given may
also be of interest to workers in many special branches, even somewhat removed
from actual metal science, branches related to research or to the utilization
of materials in the heated condition. The information contained in the book
concerning the use of instruments and experimental procedures could also be
adopted with advantage in other fields of scientific investigation concerned
with the study of various non-metallic materials.
Table I
"High Temperature Vacuum Metallography'
for Investigating
Microstructure of Properties of the
metals & alloys macro-and micro-volume
i
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These new methods, and the apparatus for investigating the structure and
properties of metals and alloys at high temperatures in a vacuum constitute
the first part and the first chapter of the second part of the book. In
Chapters I I, I II and IV of the second part there are set out the experimental
results of a series of studies carried out with the author's collaboration,
chiefly at the Metallurgical Institute A.A. Baikov, and at the Institute of
machine engineering U.S.S.R. Science Academy.* These studies show the great
• This will be referred to as the Machine Institute throughout.