High-resolution urban observation network for user-specific meteorological information service in

20 Pages·2017·9.04 MB·English

Atmos.Meas.Tech.,10,1575–1594,2017
www.atmos-meas-tech.net/10/1575/2017/
doi:10.5194/amt-10-1575-2017
©Author(s)2017.CCAttribution3.0License.
High-resolution urban observation network for
user-specific meteorological information service
in the Seoul Metropolitan Area, South Korea
Moon-SooPark,Sung-HwaPark,Jung-HoonChae,Min-HyeokChoi,YunyoungSong,MinsooKang,and
Joon-WooRoh
WeatherInformationServiceEngine,HankukUniversityofForeignStudies,17035,Gyeonggi-do,SouthKorea
Correspondenceto:Moon-SooPark([email protected])
Received:25August2016–Discussionstarted:30August2016
Revised:6April2017–Accepted:7April2017–Published:25April2017
Abstract.Toimproveourknowledgeofurbanmeteorology, qualitycheckwithin10minfromobservation.Afterthequal-
including those processes applicable to high-resolution me- ity check, data can be distributed to relevant potential users
teorologicalmodelsintheSeoulMetropolitanArea(SMA), suchasresearchersandpolicymakers.Finally,twocasestud-
theWeatherInformationServiceEngine(WISE)UrbanMe- ies demonstrate that the observed data have a great poten-
teorologicalObservationSystem(UMS-Seoul)hasbeende- tialtohelptounderstandtheboundary-layerstructuresmore
signed and installed. The UMS-Seoul incorporates 14 sur- deeply, improve the performance of high-resolution meteo-
face energy balance (EB) systems, 7 surface-based three- rologicalmodels,andprovideusefulinformationcustomized
dimensional (3-D) meteorological observation systems and basedontheuserdemandsintheSMA.
applied meteorological (AP) observation systems, and the
existing surface-based meteorological observation network.
TheEBsystemconsistsofaradiationbalancesystem,sonic 1 Introduction
anemometers, infrared CO /H O gas analyzers, and many
2 2
sensors measuring the wind speed and direction, tempera- Theworldpopulationexceeded7.3billionin2015;itispro-
ture and humidity, precipitation, and air pressure. The EB- jectedtoincreasesteadilyandreach9.7billionby2050and
producedradiation,meteorological,andturbulencedatawill 11.2billionby2100(UnitedNations,2015).Theurbanpop-
be used to quantify the surface EB according to land use ulationalsoincreasedandisexpectedtoincreaseataneven
and to improve the boundary-layer and surface processes greater rate. The ratio of the global urban population was
in meteorological models. The 3-D system, composed of a over53%in2014andisprojectedtogrowtoapproximately
windlidar,microwaveradiometer,aerosollidar,orceilome- 66% by 2050 (United Nations, 2014). The high population
ter, produces the cloud height, vertical profiles of backscat- densityinurbanareasisinevitablyvulnerablenotonlytodis-
ter by aerosols, wind speed and direction, temperature, hu- astrousmeteorologicalandenvironmentalphenomena,such
midity, and liquid water content. It will be used for high- as heavy rain/snowfall, heat and cold waves, air pollution,
resolutionreanalysisdatabasedonobservationsandforthe and strong wind, but also to manmade disasters such as the
improvement of the boundary-layer, radiation, and micro- explosionorreleaseoftoxicgases(OFCM,2004;Razafind-
physicsprocessesinmeteorologicalmodels.TheAPsystem rabeetal.,2009).Impervioussurfacesinurbanareastendto
includes road weather information, mosquito activity, wa- amplifyurbanflashfloodingunderheavyrainfallconditions,
terquality,andagrometeorologicalobservationinstruments. freezingrainorsnowfalldisrupttransportationsystems,and
Thestandardizedmetadatafornetworksandstationsaredoc- severe storms with lightning and high winds might result
umentedandrenewedperiodicallytoprovideadetailedob- in power failures. A high population density in urban areas
servationenvironment.TheUMS-Seouldataaredesignedto thereforeleadstogreaterpropertydamageandlossoflifeas
support real-time acquisition and display and automatically aresultofdisastrousevents.
PublishedbyCopernicusPublicationsonbehalfoftheEuropeanGeosciencesUnion.
1576 M.-S.Parketal.:UrbanmeteorologicalobservationsintheSeoulMetropolitanArea
Itiswellknownthattheurbansurfacematerialandbuild- sorption,emission,scattering,reflection,andtranspirationin
ing morphology affect meteorology in various ways includ- theatmosphereforradiativeenergy),surface(surfaceEBand
ingtheincreaseintemperature,leadingtotheurbanheatis- energy/moisture transfer between the surface and ground),
land effect (Bornstein, 1968; Oke, 1973; Landsberg, 1981; andatmosphericboundary-layerschemes(energyandmois-
Arnfield,2003;KalnayandCai,2003;KimandBaik,2005; ture transfer between the surface and atmospheric bound-
Grimmond,2006);decreaseorincreaseinthetemporalvari- ary layer), interact with each other (Dudhia, 1989). Irregu-
ation of absolute humidity due to impervious surfaces and larsurfacemorphologiesandmaterialsinurbanareasaffect
anthropogenicwateruse(Unger,1999;Kuttleretal.,2007); thesurfaceoptical,physical,andthermalpropertiessuchas
increaseinhaze,cloud,andprecipitation(BornsteinandLin, thermalconductivity,heatcapacity,roughness,displacement
2000;DixonandMote,2003;Shepherd,2005;Carrioetal., length,albedo,andemissivity(Masson,2006;LeeandPark,
2010); decrease in visibility due to anthropogenic aerosols 2008; Grimmond et al., 2009). These properties change the
(Cheng and Tsai, 2000; Singh et al., 2008; Nichol et al., energy partition dramatically over urban surfaces compared
2010);increaseintheturbulentintensityandchangeofwind withruralsurfaces.Asaresult,themodifiedsensibleandla-
speedduetohigh-risebuildings(Roth,2000;Arnfield,2003; tent heat fluxes change the boundary-layer structure due to
Grimmond et al., 2004; Barlow et al., 2011; Song et al., energyandmoistureinteractionsbetweenthesurface,under-
2013); decrease in solar radiation due to manmade air pol- lyingground,andoverlyingatmosphere(Pielke,2002).
lutants (Peterson et al., 1978; Robaa, 2009); increase in the In South Korea, the urban population ratio increased
sensibleheatfluxandheatstorageduetoanthropogenicheat steadily from 21.4% in 1950 to 79.4% in 2000 to 82.4%
releasefromtheurbansurface;anddecreaseinthelatentheat in 2014; it is expected to reach 87.6% in 2050 (United Na-
flux (Nunez and Oke, 1977; Christen and Vogt, 2004; Har- tions,2014,2015).TheSeoulMetropolitanArea(SMA)was
man and Belcher, 2006; Grimmond et al., 2009; Nordbo et ranked to include the fifth largest urban area population in
al., 2012; Park et al., 2014a). When the synoptic wind be- 2015(Demographia,2015).Meteorologicaldataanalysesfor
comes strong, the area receiving most of the precipitation the period from 1960 to 2009 in the SMA show that the air
with strong upward motion moves more downwind (Born- temperatureandprecipitationincrease,relativehumidityde-
steinandLin,2000;Linetal.,2011;Hanetal.,2014). creases,andheavyrainfalleventswithmorethan20mmh−1
Many countries and cities in Europe, North America, alsoincrease(Kimetal.,2011).Recently,theSMAhasexpe-
andAsiahaveconductedurbanmeteorologicalexperiments riencedblackoutsofmorethan1.6millionhousesduetofail-
and/orintensiveobservationcampaignsforvariouspurposes ureinelectricpowerdemandpredictionafterextremelyhot
such as understanding urban meteorological processes and weatherinautumn,massivedamagefromshallowlandslides
improvingthepredictabilityofurbanhigh-resolutionmeteo- duetoheavyrainfallin2011(D.W.Parketal.,2013),several
rologicalphenomena(Allwineetal.,2002;Crosetal.,2004; inundationsbyflashfloods(Kimetal.,2014),buildingdam-
Rotach et al., 2005; Schroeder et al., 2010; Basara et al., ageduetostrongwindssuchastyphoons,trafficaccidentsas
2011; Koskinen et al., 2011; Hicks et al., 2012; Wood et aresultofroadice,anddeathsduetoannualheat/coldwaves
al., 2013; Nakatani et al., 2015; Tan et al., 2015). The ob- (Sonetal.,2012).
served meteorological variables, spatial resolution for each The Weather Information Service Engine (WISE) project
instrumentinthenetwork,andtemporalresolutionforeach was launched in 2012 to meet the needs of high-resolution
variable are determined according to the needs of various meteorological information to reduce the damage to the
users:surfacemeteorologyandservice-orientedobservation citizens caused by extreme weather phenomena and pro-
might be sufficient for real-time information services such vide useful indices customized for each user’s demand
astheNewYorkMesonet(http://www.nysmesonet.org);sur- in the SMA (Choi et al., 2013). To achieve these goals,
face energy balance (EB) and vertical profiles are needed scientific advances in urban meteorology and develop-
foradvancesinurbanmeteorologyorhigh-qualityandhigh- ment/improvement of high-resolution meteorological mod-
resolutionforecastssuchastheBaselUrbanBoundaryLayer elsandservice-specificapplicationmodelsareneeded(Bak-
Experiment (Rotach et al., 2005) and Shanghai Urban In- lanov,2006;Baklanovetal.,2008).Toprovidevarioususers,
tegrated Meteorological Observation Network (Tan et al., suchasresearchers,administrators,andpolicymakers,with
2015); and radars are good for real-time services for se- observation-based meteorological information and support
vere weather and short-term forecast such as the Tokyo thedevelopmentorimprovementofrelatedmodelsinfields
Metropolitan Area Convection Study for Extreme Weather ofairquality,flashflood,roadweather,dispersionofreleased
Resilience(Nakatanietal.,2013,2015). dangerous matter, ecology, and energy use prediction with
For the purpose of high-resolution meteorological infor- a horizontal resolution from several meters to several kilo-
mationservices,theimprovementofthesupportingmeteoro- meters, the high-resolution Urban Meteorological Observa-
logicalmodelisessential.Physicsschemes,includingmicro- tionSystemnetworkintheSeoulMetropolitanArea(UMS-
physics(interactionsamongwatervapor,cloudwater,cloud Seoul)hasbeenproposedandestablished.
ice, rain drop, snow, and graupel), cumulus (updraft, down- This study includes the background of UMS-Seoul
draft,entrainment,anddetrainmentinclouds),radiation(ab- throughadescriptionofthegeography,topography,andland
Atmos.Meas.Tech.,10,1575–1594,2017 www.atmos-meas-tech.net/10/1575/2017/
M.-S.Parketal.:UrbanmeteorologicalobservationsintheSeoulMetropolitanArea 1577

cover of the SMA and a review of available meteorological (a)
38.2
observationnetworks.Wethenpresenttheobjectives,details,
and applications of each meteorological observation system
38.0
networkincludingthesurfaceEBobservationsystem,three-
Gyeonggi Province
dimensional (3-D) meteorological observation system, and 37.8
applied meteorological (AP) observation system network in N)
UMS-Seoul.TheusefulnessofUMS-Seoulandapplicability o E ( 37.6
to high-resolution meteorological information services are TUD I n Cchiteyon Seoul City
thendemonstratedusingthedetailedhorizontalsurfaceme- ATI 37.4 Yellow Sea
L (Gyeonggi Bay)
teorologicalfieldandcomplexboundary-layerstructure.
37.2
37.0
2 SeoulMetropolitanArea
36.8
126.0 126.2 126.4 126.6 126.8 127.0 127.2 127.4 127.6 127.8
TheSMAontheKoreanPeninsulaconsistsofthreeadmin- LONGITUDE ( o E)
(b)
istrative provinces: Seoul Special City, Incheon Metropoli- 37.8
tan City, and Gyeonggi Province (Fig. 1a). Seoul Special
Mt. Dobong (740 m)
City, the capital city of South Korea, is surrounded by the 37.7
Mt. Surak (638 m)
GyeonggiProvinceandIncheonMetropolitanCity,withthe Mt. Bukhan (837 m)
Mt. Bulam (510 m)
highest population density of 16188km−2 (Table 1). In- 37.6 Seoul City
cheon Metropolitan City is located between Seoul Special o N)E ( Mt. Nam (262 m) (m)
ChiigtyheasntdpotphuelaYtieolnlo(w11S.4eam.iTllhioenGpyeoeopnleg)gainPdrtohveinlacregehsatsatrheae ATITUD 37.5 I n Cchiteyon Mt. Gwanak (632 m) 911100120000000
(10184km2)butthelowestpopulationdensity(1119km−2; L 37.4 Mt. Chenggye (618 m) 780000
600
Table1). 500
400
The SMA has very complex geography, topography, and 37.3 Yellow Sea 300
(Gyeonggi Bay) 200
landcover.GyeonggiBayisintheYellowSeainthewestof Gyeonggi Province 100
50
theSMAandhasaveryirregularcoastline.TheYellowSea 10
37.2 0
126.6 126.7 126.8 126.9 127 127.1 127.2 127.3
is an important moisture source in the case of heavy rain- LONGITUDE ( o E)
fall,snowfall,orheterogeneousreactionsamonglong-range-
Figure 1. (a) Geography and topography of the Seoul Metropoli-
transportingairpollutants(ChungandKim,2008;Cayetano
tanAreawithadministrativeboundaries.(b)Enhancedgeography
et al., 2011; Cha et al., 2011; S.-U. Park et al., 2011, 2013;
andtopographywithmajormountainsinahighlypopulatedregion
Jeong and Park, 2013). The western part of the SMA com-
shownbytherectangleinpanel(a).
prisesrelativelylow-lyingfarmlandorurbanareas,whilethe
easternpartcontainshigh-altitudemountainranges,someof
Table1.Area,population,andpopulationdensitystatisticsinSMA
which are higher than 1000m in Domain 1 (Fig. 1a). Most
(http://kosis.kr).
mountains in South Korea are covered with forest. Highly
populated areas range from Incheon Metropolitan City to
Seoul Incheon Gyeonggi
Seoul Special City, indicated in Domain 2 (Fig. 1b). The
Han River flows from east to west and divides the SMA Area(km2) 605 1010 10184
from Seoul Capital City. Seoul Capital City is surrounded Population 9794304 2662509 11379459
by several high mountains >500m in altitude: the Bukhan, Populationdensity 16188 2588 1119
Dobong,Surak,andGwanakmountainsinthenorthernpart (km−2)
and the Cheonggye and Bulam mountains in the southern
part. There is a small mountain (262m high) in the center
ofSeoulSpecialCity(Fig.1b). andwaterbodiescover6.4%ofthearea(Table2).Mostwet-
Figure 2 shows the simplified land use in the SMA (Do- landsaretidelandsontheborderbetweenthecontinentand
main 1) and highly populated area (Domain 2) with 90m YellowSea.Morethan40%ofSeoulCapitalCityisresiden-
horizontalresolution.Forestcovers41.9%ofthearea;crop- tialorcommercialareas,approximately30%iscoveredwith
lands including pasture and grassland cover 21.5%; water forest,and∼10%iscoveredwithroadsandrivers(Fig.2b).
bodiesincludingseawaterandinlandwatercover20.9%;ur-
ban areas including residential, industrial, and commercial
areas cover 8.6%; and wetlands cover 5.0% in Domain 1
(Table 2). In Domain 2, forest covers 36.0%, urban areas
cover28.3%,croplandscover20.6%,wetlandscover8.6%,
www.atmos-meas-tech.net/10/1575/2017/ Atmos.Meas.Tech.,10,1575–1594,2017
1578 M.-S.Parketal.:UrbanmeteorologicalobservationsintheSeoulMetropolitanArea
Table2.PercentageoflanduseintheSMAdomain(Domain1)and
highlypopulateddomain(Domain2).
Landuse Domain1 Domain2
(%) (%)
Cropland,pasture,grassland 21.5 20.6
Forest 41.9 36.0
Waterbodies 20.9 6.4
Wetlands 5.0 8.6
Barren 2.1 0.1
Urban(low-intensityresidential) 4.3 12.8
Urban(high-intensityresidential) 2.2 9.0
Urban(industrialandcommercial) 2.0 6.5
sensorat7or10m,atemperaturesensorat1.5–2m,precip-
itation detection, and a tipping-bucket-type rain gauge with
heater,whileeachSKP-operatedAWShasanintegratedme-
teorologicalsensorandtipping-bucket-typeraingaugewith-
outheater,whichissettonotmeasureprecipitationinwinter.
Some of the KMA-operated AWSs and most SKP-operated
meteorologicalstationsareinstalledontherooftopsofbuild-
ings; few are installed in street canyons due to space re-
strictions. Regardless of the installation environment, if we
chooseanypointwithurbanlandcoverinSeoulSpecialCity,
thedistancefromthatpointtothenearestAWSwillbeless
than1km.
Therearetworawindsondestations,twowindprofilerand
microwaveradiometerstations,andsixradarstationsinDo-
main 1 (Fig. 3). The Osan (WMO station number 47122)
andBaengnyeongdo(WMOstationnumber47102)stations
Figure 2. (a) Land use in the Seoul Metropolitan Area and observetheupper-airmeteorologicalvariablesfourandtwo
(b)zoomedimageofthehighlypopulatedregionshownbytherect- timesaday,respectively.Awindprofilerandmicrowavera-
angleinpanel(a). diometer are installed at the Paju and Cheorwon stations to
observetheverticalprofileofwind,temperature,andhumid-
ity. With respect to radar stations, KMA operates three S-
3 Backgroundmeteorologicalobservationnetwork bandandoneC-bandradar,theKoreaInstituteofCivilEngi-
neeringandBuildingTechnologyoperatesoneX-bandradar,
Manybackgroundmeteorologicalobservationsystemshave theSouthKoreanAirForceoperatesoneC-bandradar,and
already been installed in the SMA (Fig. 3; Table 3). There theMinistryofLand,Infrastructure,andTransportoperates
areover110meteorologicalobservationstationsoperatedby oneC-bandradarinDomain1(Fig.3).
theKoreaMeteorologicalAdministration(KMA),whoselo- Even though high-resolution and various meteorological
cationsareselectedbasedontheadministrativedistrict,and observation systems are located in the SMA, there are still
more than 1000 meteorological observation stations oper- manyunknownsregardingurbansurfaceforcingandvertical
atedbyasubsidiarycompanyofSK(largesttelecommunica- profilesoftemperature,humidity,andwindthatimpedeour
tioncompanyinSouthKorea,SKP),whoselocationsarese- understanding of the fundamentals of urban meteorological
lectedbasedonthedaytimeandresidentpopulationsinDo- phenomenainhighlypopulatedareasoftheSMA.Tocounter
main1.TheKMA-operatedautomaticsynopticobservation this,theWISEprojectwasdesignedandtheUMS-Seoulwas
system(ASOS)observestheairpressure,evaporation,cloud installedinthisarea.
amount, sunshine, snow depth, surface and ground temper-
atures, and weather phenomena and the basic meteorologi-
cal variables of the grass surface with minimized obstacles.
AllASOSstationsfollowtheguidelinesoftheWorldMete-
orological Organization (WMO, 2008). The KMA-operated
automaticweathersystem(AWS)hasawindspeed/direction
Atmos.Meas.Tech.,10,1575–1594,2017 www.atmos-meas-tech.net/10/1575/2017/
M.-S.Parketal.:UrbanmeteorologicalobservationsintheSeoulMetropolitanArea 1579
Figure 3. Location of background radars, rawindsondes, wind profilers, radiometers, automatic synoptic observation systems, automatic
weathersystems,andSKPautomaticweathersystemsinthe(a)SeoulMetropolitanAreaand(b)highlypopulatedregion.
4 Urbanmeteorologicalobservationnetworksystem selected considering the surface land cover and horizontal
(UMS-Seoul)anditsapplications distributionofgeographyandtopography.Table5showsthe
land cover of the major observation stations classified by
Auer(1978),Davenportetal.(2000),Oke(2004),andStew-
The UMS-Seoul is composed of a surface EB observation
art and Oke (2009, 2012). Each station represents a differ-
network, a 3-D meteorological observation network, an AP
ent type of land cover.The Yeouido and Gwangjin stations,
observation network, and the existing surface-based meteo-
located on the border of the Han River, are representative
rologicalobservationnetworkintheSMA.Table4showsthe
riversites.Typifyingintenselydevelopedandcompacthigh-
simplifiedspecificationsandinstalledsensorsineachobser-
rise sites, Gwanghwamun, Guro, and Songdo are located in
vationnetwork.
thecenterofSeoulSpecialCity,southwestofSeoulSpecial
Figure 4 shows the location of each meteorological ob-
City, and south of Incheon Metropolitan City, respectively.
servation network station in UMS-Seoul. The locations are
www.atmos-meas-tech.net/10/1575/2017/ Atmos.Meas.Tech.,10,1575–1594,2017
1580 M.-S.Parketal.:UrbanmeteorologicalobservationsintheSeoulMetropolitanArea
Table3.SpecificationandinstalledsensorsoftheexistingmeteorologicalobservationnetworkintheSeoulMetropolitanArea.
Systems Descriptions
Automatic Operator KoreaMeteorologicalAdministration
synoptic Number 7
observation Variable Temperature,relativehumidity,windspeed,winddirection,solar
system radiation,grasstemperature,undergroundtemperature,airpressure,
evaporation,sunshine,snowdepth,precipitation,precipitationdetection,
(manual)weatherphenomena,cloudamount
Automatic Operator KoreaMeteorologicalAdministration
weather Number 108
system Sensors Temperature,windspeed,winddirection,precipitation,
precipitationdetection
Integrated Operator SKP
meteorological Number 1078
observation Sensors Temperature,relativehumidity,windspeed,winddirection,
station airpressure,precipitation
Radar Operators Korea MinistryofLand, KoreaAir KoreaInstitute
Meteorological Infrastructure Force ofCivilEngineering
Administration andTransport andBuildingTechnology
Number 4 1 1 1
Specifications S-band3;C-band1 C-band C-band X-band
Windprofiler Operator KoreaMeteorologicalAdministration
Number 2
Specifications UHF(ultra-highfrequency)1.29GHz
Radiometer Operator KoreaMeteorologicalAdministration
Number 2
Specification Humidity7channel(22–30GHz);temperature7channel(51–59GHz)
Rawindsonde Operator KoreaMeteorologicalAdministration
Number 2
Specification 00:00,12:00UTCforregular(06:00,18:00UTCoption)
TheSongdoStation,inparticular,isanewlydevelopedhigh- tiveofsurfacelandcoverintheSMA.Manufacturer,model,
risebuilding complex.The Anyangand Nowon stations are measurement range, and accuracy of sensors are listed in
surroundedbyapartmentbuildingcomplexes,oneofthetyp- Table 6. The CR3000 is used for data logging and Log-
ical residential types. The Jungnang, Gajwa, Gangnam, and gerNet for operating the software manufactured by Camp-
Seongnamstationsarelocatedinoldresidentialareasinthe bell Scientific, Inc. The performances of all meteorological
SMA.Asruralstations,YounginandBucheonrepresentur- sensors were certified by the manufacturer before shipping.
banforestandcropfieldsites,respectively. Inaddition,mostmeteorologicalsensorswerealsocertified
All 14 surface EB observation systems are deployed on by the Korea Meteorological Industry Promotion Agency
thetowerinstalledonthegroundoronarooftopofabuild- before installation. Performance certificates have been is-
ing surrounded by similar surface land cover (residential, sued and will be renewed every 3 years. The H O and
2
commercial,industrial,mixed,andrural).Themeasurement CO infrared gas analyzer is calibrated every 6 months ac-
2
towerheightrangesfrom1.5m(riverside)to18.5m(Jung- cording to the procedure suggested in the manual (https://
nang).Eachsystemincludestwoorthreetemperature,rela- s.campbellsci.com/documents/af/manuals/ec150.pdf). Addi-
tive humidity, wind speed, and wind direction sensors, one tionally, a large-aperture scintillometer (manufactured by
tothreeCO /H Oinfraredgasanalyzers,twoorthreesonic Kipp & Zonen, model MK-II) and six thermal infrared im-
2 2
anemometers, an air pressure sensor, a precipitation gauge agery systems (manufactured by Nippon Avionics, model
with heater, one to three surface temperature sensors, and TS9230) are installed to obtain the line-averaged sensible
a four-component net radiometer (downward/upward and heat flux and sub-building-scale spatial distributions of the
shortwave/longwave radiometers). Figure 5 shows a typi- surfacetemperature,respectively.
cal EB measurement tower, including sensors, representa-
Atmos.Meas.Tech.,10,1575–1594,2017 www.atmos-meas-tech.net/10/1575/2017/
M.-S.Parketal.:UrbanmeteorologicalobservationsintheSeoulMetropolitanArea 1581
Table 4. Sensors installed in the surface energy balance system and specifications of instruments of the 3-D and applied meteorological
observationsystem.Themanufacturerandmodelnameforeach3-Dinstrumentandsensorusedintheappliedmeteorologicalsystemare
added.
Systems Sensororspecification
Surfaceenergy Sites 14(rural,residential,commercial,industrial,apartment,river)
balancesystem Towerheight 4.0–18.5m
Sensor Temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, wind direction, downward/upward or short-
wave/longwave radiation, CO2/H2O infrared gas analyzer, sonic anemometer, surface tem-
perature, rain gauge, water temperature (two stations), thermal infrared imagery (Jungnang,
Gwanghwamun,Gajwa,Anyang,Guro–twosets)
Temporal 1minformeteorologicalvariables
resolution 10Hzsamplingand30minaveragingforturbulentflux(sonicanemometer,CO2/H2Ogasan-
alyzer)
Option Large-aperturescintillometer(Kipp&Zonen,MK-II)–oneset
Surfacetemperaturemonitoringsystem–twosets
3-D Ceilometer Twostations
meteorological (Vaisala,CL51) Wavelength:910nm
observation Backscatterbyaerosol(upto15km,10mverticalresolution);cloudbaseheights(threelevels)
system (1mintemporalresolution)
Accuracy:±5mforcloudbaseheight
Aerosollidar Twostations
(Raymetrics, Wavelength:532nm(parallel,cross-polarized),1064nm
LB210-D200) Backscatterbyaerosol(upto16km,3.75mverticalresolution),depolarizationratio,backscat-
teringcoefficient(2mintemporalresolution,1haverage)
Microwave Sevenstations
radiometer Watervapor(22–31GHz,7channels),temperature(51–58GHz,7channels)
(RPG, Atmosphericattenuationforeachchannel,verticalprofileoftemperature,humidity,liquidwater
HATPRO-G4) content(1mintemporalresolution)
Verticalresolution(m):30upto1200m,200upto5000m,400upto10000mfortemperature
profile;200upto2000m,400upto5000m,800upto10000mforhumidityprofile
RMSaccuracy:0.25K(upto500m),0.50K(upto1200m),0.75K(upto4000m),1.00K(up
to10000m)fortemperature,5%forrelativehumidity
Windlidar Sixstations
(Leosphere, Wavelength:1532nm
Windcube-200) Wind speed and direction (up to 6000m, 100m vertical resolution) (21s sample and 10min
average)
RMSaccuracy:0.3ms−1forwindspeed,1.5◦forwinddirection
Applied Road Sixstations/mobileroadweathervehicle–oneset
meteorological Fixed: wind speed and direction (RM Young, 05103), temperature and humidity (Vaisala,
observation HMP155), pressure (Vaisala, PTB110), precipitation (ELP, ERGH), precipitation detection
system (ELP,ERD100),insolation(Kipp&Zonen,CMP10),netradiometer(Kipp&Zonen,CNR4),
roadsensor(surfacetemperatureandstatus,salinity,waterdepth)(Lufft,IRS31Pro)(1mintem-
poralresolution)
Mobile: wind speed and direction (Vaisala, WMT703), temperature and humidity (Vaisala,
HMP155), pressure (Vaisala, PTB330), precipitation (Vaisala, RG13H), precipitation detec-
tion(Vaisala,DRD11A),insolation(Kipp&Zonen,CMP11),netradiometer(Kipp&Zonen,
CNR4),roadsensor(surfacetemperature,status,salinity,andwaterdepth)(Vaisala,DSP310),
globalpositioningsystem(TRIMBLE,NetR9)(1stemporalresolution)
Waterquality Twostations
(HYDROLAB, Watertemperature,pH,conductivity,dissolvedoxygen,salinity,turbidity,chlorophylla,water
DS5X) depth(5mintemporalresolution)
www.atmos-meas-tech.net/10/1575/2017/ Atmos.Meas.Tech.,10,1575–1594,2017
1582 M.-S.Parketal.:UrbanmeteorologicalobservationsintheSeoulMetropolitanArea
Table4.Continued.
Systems Sensororspecification
Mosquito Threestations
(ETND,DMS Mosquitoactivity(1htemporalresolution)
VERIII)
Greenhousegas Onestation
CH4 concentration(LI-COR,LI-7700),totalradiation(Kipp&Zonen,CMP10),diffuseradi-
ation(Kipp&Zonen,CMP10)withsuntracker(Kipp&Zonen,SOLYS2)(30mintemporal
resolution)
Agrometeorology Fourstations
Netradiometer(Kipp&Zonen,CNR4),temperatureandhumidity(Vaisala,HMP155A),albedo
(Kipp & Zonen, CMA6), leaf wetness (Campbell, LWS), soil moisture content (Campbell,
CS616), wind speed and direction (RM Young, 05103), precipitation (Wedaen, WDR-202),
soil temperature (Campbell, 107), ground heat flux (Hukseflux, HFP01), Quantum (LI-COR,
LI190SB)(1mintemporalresolution)
Figure 4. Location of the UMS-Seoul urban meteorological observation system networks in the highly populated region of the Seoul
MetropolitanArea.
Qualitycheckalgorithmsformeteorologicalvariablesand removal of spike data (Vickers and Mahrt, 1997), (3) com-
flux data have previously been developed (Aubinet et al., putation of the vertical flux with a 30min block average
2012;Chaeetal.,2014;M.-S.Parketal.,2013,2014a;Kim (Kwon et al., 2014), and (4) Webb–Pearman–Leuning cor-
et al., 2015). Basic quality checks for meteorological vari- rection(Webbetal.,1980;Leuning,2007).
ables include missing check, physical limit check, climate The EB systems, installed on different land cover in ur-
rangecheck,andspikeremoval(Chaeetal.,2014).Surface ban areas, are applied to determine not only the surface EB
fluxes are computed from 10Hz raw data using the follow- among the net radiation, sensible heat flux, latent heat flux,
ing procedure: (1) physical limit check, (2) detection and heatstorageorgroundheatflux,andanthropogenicheatflux
Atmos.Meas.Tech.,10,1575–1594,2017 www.atmos-meas-tech.net/10/1575/2017/
M.-S.Parketal.:UrbanmeteorologicalobservationsintheSeoulMetropolitanArea 1583
Table5.Landcoverclassificationofmajorobservationstations.
Station Classification
Name Building Tower Auer Davenportet Oke Stewartand Stewartand
height(m) height(m) (1978)a al.(2000)b (2004)c Oke(2009) Oke(2012)d
Jungnang 23.0 18.5 R2 N7E7S7W7 UCZ-2 Compacthousing LCZ-2E
Gwanghwamun 71.0 7.0 C1 N8E8S8W8 UCZ-1 Moderncore LCZ-1E
Gajwa 23.0 10.0 R2 N7E7S7W7 UCZ-3 Compacthousing LCZ-3E
Guro 57.6 10.0 C1 N8E8S7W6 UCZ-1 Moderncore LCZ-1E
Anyang 63.5 10.0 R1 N7E7S7W7 UCZ-3 Blocks LCZ-4B
Yeouido 12.0 6.5 A5 N1E1S7W1 UCZ-6 Openground LCZ-4G
Bucheon 0.0 15.0 A2 N3E4S3W3 UCZ-7 Croppedfields LCZ-9D
Ilsan 4.0 10.0 A2 N5E4S4W4 UCZ-7 Croppedfields LCZ-9D
Songdo 14.3 7.0 C1 N6E6S6W6 UCZ-7 Moderncore LCZ-4E
Youngin 0.0 15.0 A1 N7E7S7W7 UCZ-6 Forest LCZ-9A
Nowon 37.5 10.0 R1 N5E5S5W5 UCZ-3 Blocks LCZ-4B
Gangnam 21.2 4.0 R2 N7E7S8W7 UCZ-3 Compacthousing LCZ-3E
Seongnam 8.0 6.0 R2 N7E7S7W7 UCZ-3 Compacthousing LCZ-3E
Gwangjin 0.0 10.0 A5 N7E1S1W1 UCZ-6 Openground LCZ-4G
aAuer(1978):A1,metropolitannatural;A2,agriculturalrural;A5,watersurfaces;C1,commercial;R1,commonresidential;R2,compactresidential.
bDavenportetal.(2000):N,north;E,east;S,south;W,west;1,sea;3,open;4,roughlyopen;5,rough;6,veryrough;7,skimming;8,chaotic.
cOke(2004)urbanclimatezones(UCZ):UCZ-1intenselydeveloped;UCZ-2intenselydevelopedhighdensity;UCZ-3highlydevelopedmediumdensity;
UCZ-6mixedusewithlargebuildingsinopenlandscape;UCZ-7semi-ruraldevelopmentwithscatteredhouses.
dStewartandOke(2012)localclimatezones(LCZ):1,compacthigh-rise;2,compactmid-rise;3,compactlow-rise;4,openhigh-rise;9,sparselybuilt;A,
densetrees;B,scatteredtrees;C,bushscrub;D,lowplant;E,barerockorpaved;G,water.
butalsothesurfacethermal,optical,andphysicalproperties Windex-2000),andsevenmicrowaveradiometers(manufac-
suchasthermalconductivity,heatcapacity,albedo,emissiv- turedbyRPG,HATPRO-G4;Table5).Theaerosollidarpro-
ity, roughness length, and displacement length. The surface videstheverticaldistributionoftheaerosolsandaerosolop-
thermal conductivity, heat capacity, and emissivity are esti- tical depth using the vertical profile of the range-corrected
mated and verified by comparison with the surface temper- backscatter signal and depolarization ratio from 532 and
ature determined based on the EB and heat transfer models 1064nm wavelength lasers. The ceilometer provides three
withobservedsurfacetemperature(MonteithandUnsworth, levels of cloud base height and the vertical distribution of
1990; Santillan-Soto et al., 2015). The surface roughness two-way attenuated backscatter from a 910nm wavelength
and displacement lengths are obtained by a micrometeoro- laser.Thewindlidarprovidestheverticalprofileofthewind
logical method and verified with those obtained from urban speedanddirectionusingtheDopplerbeamswingingscan-
morphologydatasuchasmeanbuildingheight,frontalarea ning technology of a 1532nm wavelength laser (Werner,
density,andplaneareadensityfromthegeographicalinfor- 2005).Themicrowaveradiometerprovidestheverticalpro-
mationsystem(Macdonaldetal.,1998;Kwonetal.,2014). file of the temperature and humidity using the observed at-
They are expected to produce high-resolution surface prop- mospheric attenuation of 14 wavelength channels. Each in-
erty maps, such as albedo, emissivity, and thermal conduc- strumentexceptforthemicrowaveradiometerhasavertical
tivity,andsurfaceroughnesslengthanddisplacement(Yiet resolutionoflessthanorequalto50mandatemporalreso-
al.,2015;Jeeetal.,2016).Furthermore,theydeterminethe lutionoflessthan10min:theaerosollidarhasa3.75mver-
30min averaged carbon dioxide concentration and flux and tical resolution up to 16km and 2min temporal resolution;
thesensibleheatflux,latentheatflux,radiativeflux,andheat theceilometerhasa10mverticalresolutionupto15kmand
storage.TheEBdataareappliedtoverifytheurbansurface 1min temporal resolution; the microwave radiometer has a
processes based on the land use and to improve the urban denseverticalresolutionatlowaltitudebutacoarseresolu-
surfaceprocessesinmeteorologicalmodels. tion at high altitude (30m up to 1.2km, 200m up to 5km,
The3-Dmeteorologicalobservationnetworkprovidesthe 400mupto10kmfortemperatureprofile;200mupto2km,
real-time vertical profile of backscatter, wind speed and di- 400m up to 5km, 800m up to 10km for relative humidity
rection, temperature, and humidity using two aerosol li- profile)and1mintemporalresolution;andthewindlidarhas
dars (manufactured by Raymetrics, model LB210-D200), a50mverticalresolutionanda10mintemporalresolution.
two ceilometers (manufactured by Vaisala, model CL51), The accuracy and reproducibility of each surface-based re-
six wind lidars (three are manufactured by Leosphere, mote sensing instrument are also certified by the manufac-
Windcube-200; three are manufactured by Laser Systems, turers before shipping. The vertical profiles obtained with
www.atmos-meas-tech.net/10/1575/2017/ Atmos.Meas.Tech.,10,1575–1594,2017
1584 M.-S.Parketal.:UrbanmeteorologicalobservationsintheSeoulMetropolitanArea
Table6.Manufacturer,model,measurementrange,andaccuracyorsensitivityofsensorsdeployedinthesurfaceenergybalancesystem.
Sensor Manufacturer Measurementrange Accuracy
(model)
3-Dsonicanemometer CSI∗ u&v:±60ms−1,w:±8ms−1, u&v<±0.08ms−1,
(CSAT3B) Ts:−50–60◦C w<±0.04ms−1
CO2andH2Oopen- CSI/LI-COR CO2:0–1798mgm−3at25◦C,1atm CO2precision(RMS):0.2mgm−3
pathgasanalyzerand (EC150/ H2O:0–52.9gm−3at25◦C,1atm Zerodrift:±0.55mgm−3◦C−1
3-Dsonicanemometer CSAT3A) 3-Dsonicanemometeru&v:±60ms−1, Gaindrift:±0.1%ofreading◦C−1
w:±8ms−1,Ts:−50–60◦C H2Oprecision(RMS):0.004gm−3
Zerodrift:±0.037gm−3◦C−1
Gaindrift:±0.3%ofreading◦C−1
3-Dsonicanemometer
u&v<±0.08ms−1,w<±0.04ms−1
Netradiometer Kipp& Maximumirradiance:4000Wm−2 Expecteddailyuncertainly:<2%(shortwave);
Zonen (shortwave);2000Wm−2(longwave) <10%(longwave)
(CNR4) Spectral range: 300–2800nm (shortwave); Sensitivity: 7–20µVW−1m2 (shortwave); 5–
4500–42000nm(longwave) 10µVW−1m2(longwave)
Temperatureand CSI/Vaisala Temperature:−80–60◦C Temperature:±0.3◦C
relativehumidityprobe (HMP155A) Relativehumidity:0–100% Relativehumidity:±1%at15–25◦C,0–90%,
±1.7%at15–25◦C,90–100%
Windvane Vector 0–360◦ ±3◦
Instruments
Three-cupanemometer (W300P/ 0–75ms−1 0.1ms−1at0.1–10ms−1;1%at10–55ms−1;
A100M) 2%at55–75ms−1
Barometricpressure CSI/Vaisala 500–1100hPa ±0.3hPa at 20◦C; ±0.6hPa at 0–40◦C;
(CS106) ±1.0hPaat−20–45◦C
Infraredsurface CSI/Apogee −40–70◦C ±0.5◦Cat−40–70◦C
temperature (SI-111)
Precipitationgauge Wedaen 0.5mmper1tip ±3mmat150mmh−1
(WDSA-205)
Soilheatfluxplate CSI/Hukseflux −2000–2000Wm−2 Sensitivity:50µVW−1m2
−15–5%inmostcommonsoil
(HFP01)
Soilwatercontent CSI Soiltemperature:−10–70◦C Soiltemperature:±0.5◦C
(CS655) Volumetricwatercontent:5–50% Volumetricwatercontent:±3%
Soilandwater CSI(107) −35–50◦C ±1.0◦C
temperature
Propeller-typewind RMYoung Windspeed:0–100ms−1 Windspeed:±0.3ms−1
vane (05103) Winddirection:0–360◦ Winddirection:±3◦
Thermalinfrared Nippon Spectralrange:8–14µm
imagery Avionics Pixel:320×240
(TS9230) Fieldofview:21.7◦×16.4◦
∗CSI:CampbellScientific,Inc.
these instruments are compared with boundary-layer struc- correctedbackscatterobtainedbyaceilometeroranaerosol
tures obtained from the sonde before installation or during lidar(Eresmaaetal.,2006)orbasedonthesteepestdecrease
theintensivesondeobservationcampaignperiod. ofthewindspeedvarianceobtainedwithawindlidar(Emeis
The mixing-layer height is determined as the height with etal.,2008).Theseinstrumentsareexpectedtoimprovethe
a minimum gradient of attenuated backscatter or range- knowledgeabouttheeffectsofhigh-risebuildingsandimper-
Atmos.Meas.Tech.,10,1575–1594,2017 www.atmos-meas-tech.net/10/1575/2017/