help from above

472 Pages·2003·16.62 MB·English

HELP FROM ABOVE
Air Force Close Air Support
of the Army
1946–1973
John Schlight
AIR FORCE HISTORY AND
MUSEUMS PROGRAM
Washington, D. C.
2003
i
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Schlight, John.
Help from above : Air Force close air support of the Army 1946-1973 /
John Schlight.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Close air support--History--20th century. 2. United States. Air
Force--History--20th century. 3. United States.
Army--Aviation--History--20th century. I. Title.
UG703.S35 2003
358.4'142--dc22
2003020365
ii
Foreword
The issue of close air support by the United States Air Force in sup-
port of, primarily, the United States Army has been fractious for years. Air
commanders have clashed continually with ground leaders over the proper use
of aircraft in the support of ground operations. This is perhaps not surprising
given the very different outlooks of the two services on what constitutes prop-
er air support. Often this has turned into a competition between the two serv-
ices for resources to execute and control close air support operations.
Although such differences extend well back to the initial use of the
airplane as a military weapon, in this book the author looks at the period 1946-
1973, a period in which technological advances in the form of jet aircraft,
weapons, communications, and other electronic equipment played significant
roles. Doctrine, too, evolved and this very important subject is discussed in
detail.
Close air support remains a critical mission today and the lessons of
yesterday should not be ignored. This book makes a notable contribution in
seeing that it is not ignored.
iii
iv
Introduction
Contents
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iii
Photographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vii
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xi
1 The Birth of Close Air Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Between the Wars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
2 Close Air Support Enfeebled 1945–1950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
On the Road to Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
Reduction of Tactical Air Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
Congress and Close Air Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
Further Attempts to Improve Air-Ground Operations . . . . . . . . . . . .98
3 Close Air Support in Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
The War in Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
The Close Air Support System in Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141
The Demand Side: The Air-Ground Operations System . . . . . .142
The Supply Side: The Tactical Air Control System . . . . . . . . . .145
The Joint Operations Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
Tactical Air Control Parties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
Mosquitoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
Aircraft Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
The Bottom Line: Command and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
4 Close Air Support Under the New Look . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
The Services, The New Look, and Close Air Support . . . . . . . . . .182
Further Attempts to Create Joint Air-Ground Doctrine . . . . . . . . . .201
The Close Air Support Challenge from Organic Army
Aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221
5 Close Air Support and Flexible Response:1960–1965 . . . .233
Early Stirrings of a Close Air Support Revival, 1961–1963 . . . . . .236
The Army Proposes Its Own Airmobile Force: The Howze
Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242
v
Help from Above
The Air Force Defends the Existing System: The Disosway
Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .251
A Joint Examination of Close Air Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
Field Testing the Opposing Close Air Support Concepts . . . . . . . .279
6 The Vietnam Era:1965–1973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .299
Air Force Close Air Support Validated in Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . .301
Armed Helicopters Also Legitimized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
Toward a Specialized Close Air Support Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352
7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .365
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .385
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .419
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .447
Figures
1. St. Mihiel, September 12–16, 1918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
2. Curtiss A–12 Shrike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
3. Details of Target Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
4. Approximate Location of Targets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
5. Cover of Aviation in Support of Ground Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
6. Air-Ground Operations, August 1946 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
7. Far East Command, June–August 1950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
8. Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
9. FEAF Sorties, June 26, 1950–July 27, 1953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
10. General Almond’s Proposed Organization for Close Air
Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
11. Joint Air-Ground Operations, Immediate Air Request System,
September 1, 1957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .214
12. Joint Air-Ground Operations, Preplanned Air Request System,
September 1, 1957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
13. Air Force General Purpose Forces, FY 1961–1965 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .239
14. Organization of the 11th Air Assault Division, 1963–1964 . . . . . . . .291
15. Joint Air-Ground Operations System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
16. Major Battles and Significant Localities, Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . .321
vi
Contents
17. 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile) Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .340
18. 1st Aviation Brigade Organization, August 1, 1968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344
Photographs
An F–111F releasing high drag bombs over a range. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xvi
Gen. John J. Pershing addressing Air Service personnel at
Tours, France on July, 29, 1918 (top); Maj. Gen. Hugh A.
Drum (right); Gen. William Mitchell in cockpit at Selfridge
Field, Michigan during Daytona races in 1922 (bottom). . . . . . . . . . . .4
British De Haviland DH–4 observation plane (top left); British
Handley-Page bomber (top right); Italian Caproni A–12 bomber
(center); French Brequet bomber (bottom left); French Spad 13E
fighters in formation (bottom right). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Lt. Benjamin D. Foulois in the first aircraft owned by the U.S. Army,
a Wright type B, at Fort Sam Houston, Texas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
German Junkers all metal monoplane (top); German Halberstadt
(center); British Sopwith Camel (bottom). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
A presentation ceremony on April 16, 1920, at Kelly Field, Texas
(top); Air Corps machine shops at Barksdale Field, Louisiana
(bottom). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Silhouettes of a Curtiss A–3 (left); Curtiss XA–8 (top). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
A Curtiss Y1A–18 (top); A Douglas A–20 (bottom). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Lt. Henry H. Arnold in Wright B aircraft at College Park, Maryland
in 1911 (bottom); Gen. George C. Marshall, Chief of Staff in
1939 (right). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
A Consolidated F–7A reconnaissance aircraft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
Boeing F–9 reconnaissance aircraft (top); Lockheed F–5 reconnaissance
aircraft (center); North American F–6 reconnaissance aircraft
(far right). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
Curtiss C–46 cargo and troop carrying transport (top left); Douglas
C–47s on line (top right); Douglas C–54 over Mt. Whitney,
California (center); Douglas C–54 interior (bottom left);
Fairchild XC–82 (bottom right). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
vii
Help from Above
Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower congratulates Lt. Gen. Carl A. Spaatz on
being awarded the Legion of Merit on September 16, 1943 (left);
Lt. Gen. Elwood R. Quesada (right). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
Langley Field, Virginia (top); March Field, Riverside, California
(bottom). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
A Douglas A–26C at Lawson AFB, Georgia, February 26, 1947. . . . . . . . .64
View of the Capitol building from a Lockheed P–80 Shooting Star. . . . . . .65
A 20-mm cannon installed in a Lockheed P–80 Shooting Star. . . . . . . . . .68
A Northrop P–61 Night Fighter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Lt. Gen. Ira C. Eaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Col. William W. Momyer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Gen. Carl A. Spaatz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
Maj. Gen. Richard E. Nugent (left); Maj. Gen. Robert M. Lee
(right). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
Lt. Gen. Glenn O. Barcus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
Construction at Wright-Patterson Field, Dayton, Ohio in 1941. . . . . . . . .102
Lt. Gen. George E. Stratemeyer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
An air reconnaissance photo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
Lt. Gen. Otto P. Weyland (left) and Lt. Gen. Earle E. Partridge
(right) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
A Boeing B–29 after a mission over North Korea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127
Enemy fuel truck hit by F–51 east of Kumchon (top); F–80 attacks
on North Korean tanks. Photo taken by gun camera (bottom). . . . . . .128
Brig. Gen. James Ferguson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
A Stimson L–5, over Korea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
A North American T–6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
Napalm bombs being assembled (top); napalm being dropped from
a Lockheed P–80, at Eglin Field, Florida (bottom). . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
viii
Contents
A Soviet MIG–15 Fagot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157
A North American XF–86. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
An F–100 Sabre 45 (top); A Martin B–57A Night Intruder
(bottom). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
An illustration of a Douglas B–66A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
A drawing of an F–101A showing a portion of the cockpit interior. . . . . .188
A McDonnell F–101A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
A Cessna XL–19B, the world’s first turbine-powered light aircraft. . . . . .193
Gen. Hoyt S. Vandenberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
Maj. Gen. Curtis E. LeMay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235
Brig. Gen. Gabriel P. Disosway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253
A German Fieseler Fi–156 (top); A German Junkers Ju–87
(bottom). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268
A British Westland Lysander in France (top); A French Mureaux
115–R.2 (bottom). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
Col. Gilbert L. Meyers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .282
An F–111F refueling from a KC–135E Stratotanker. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .289
Secretary of the Air Force Eugene M. Zuckert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .295
Maj. Gen. Ernest Moore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .305
A B–52 bomber. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .309
The F–4E Phantom II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .312
Several F–4D Phantom IIs taxi on a runway with their drogue
chutes extended. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .313
An A–7K Corsair II flying with an A–7D Corsair II (top) and an
A–37 Dragonfly (bottom). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
An OV–10 Bronco. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .319
A Fairchild C–123 transport. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322
ix
Help from Above
A Marine with an M–16 rifle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .329
An XM–198 155-mm howitzer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330
A drawing of a Lockheed C–130. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333
A Soviet 7.62-mm AK–47 assault rifle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
A Soviet-made ZU–23 23-mm antiaircraft gun. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348
A Soviet-made M–1939 37-mm antiaircraft gun. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
An AH–56A Cheyenne attack helicopter, Fort Polk, Louisiana. . . . . . . . .355
An A–10 Thunderbolt II during an exercise (top) and an A–10
Thunderbolt II firing a GAU–8/A 30-mm cannon (bottom). . . . . . . .361
A UH–1H Iroquois during a training flight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377
Crewman mans an M–60 machine gun on an Iroquois helicopter. . . . . . .382
x