Has Akira Always Been a Cyberpunk Comic?

13 Pages·2017·12.05 MB·English

arts
Article
Has Akira Always Been a Cyberpunk Comic?
MartindelaIglesia ID
InstituteofEuropeanArtHistory,HeidelbergUniversity,Heidelberg69117,Germany;
[email protected]
(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:1)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:6)(cid:7)(cid:8)(cid:1)
(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:6)(cid:7)
Received:14May2018;Accepted:12July2018;Published:1August2018
Abstract: Between the late 1980s and early 1990s, interest in the cyberpunk genre peaked in the
Westernworld,perhapsmostevidentlywhenTerminator2:JudgmentDaybecamethehighest-grossing
filmof1991. IthasbeenarguedthatthetranslationofKatsuhiroO¯tomo’smangaAkiraintoseveral
Europeanlanguagesatjustthattime(intoEnglishbeginningin1988,intoFrench,Italian,andSpanish
beginningin1990,andintoGermanbeginningin1991)wasnocoincidence. Inhindsight,cyberpunk
tropesareeasilyidentifiedinAkiratotheextentthatitisnowadayswidelyregardedasaclassic
cyberpunkcomic. Buthasthisalwaysbeenthecase? WhenAkirawasfirstpublishedinAmericaand
Europe,didreadersseeitaspartofawaveofcyberpunkfiction? Didtheydrawtheconnections
topreviousworksofthecyberpunkgenreacrossdifferentmediathattodayseemobvious? Inthis
paper,magazinereviewsofAkirainEnglishandGermanfromthetimewhenitfirstcameoutinthese
languageswillbeanalysedinordertogaugethepastreaders’genreawareness. Theattributionof
thecyberpunklabeltoAkiracompetedwithotherssuchasthepost-apocalyptic,orsciencefictionin
general. Alternatively,Akirawassometimesregardedasanexceptional,novelworkthattranscended
genreboundaries.Incontrast,reviewersoftheAkiraanimeadaptation,whichwasreleasedatroughly
thesametimeasthemangaintheWest(1989inGermanyandtheUnitedStates),morereadilydrew
comparisonstoothercyberpunkfilmssuchasBladeRunner.
Keywords: audience;comics;genre;Germany;manga;receptionhistory;sciencefiction;translation;
UnitedStates
1. Introduction
KatsuhiroO¯tomo’sAkirawasfirstpublishedintheJapanesemangaperiodical,YoungMagazine,
from1982to1990. Spanningalmost2200pages,Akirawascollectedin6volumesinJapanbetween
1984and1993. ThefirsteditionintheWesternworldwastheEnglishtranslationbyEpic,animprint
of American publisher Marvel, in 38 issues from 1988 to 1995 (De la Iglesia 2016). French, Italian,
andSpanishtranslationsfollowed(allofwhichbegunin1990),andbetween1991and1996,Akirawas
releasedin19GermanvolumesbythepublisherCarlsen. ThefollowingtextfocusesontheAmerican
andGermanfirsteditionsasbeingrepresentativeoftheentireWesternworld.
InthewakeoftheseforeignAkiraeditions,aconsiderablenumberofsimilarlythemedmanga
weretranslatedintoEuropeanlanguages,suchasMasamuneShirow’sthreetitles,Appleseed,Dominion,
andGhostintheShell,MasaomiKanzaki’sXenon,andYukitoKishiro’sBattleAngelAlita. Accordingto
RogerSabin(2006),thesuccessofAkiracreateda“fashionabletemplate”whichWesternpublishers
triedtofollowbyselectingmangatitlesfromthesamegenrefortranslation,which“hadthebenefitof
co-optingmangaintothetraditionofSFcomicsintheUSAandEurope”. Theattributionofagenreto
acomic(oranypieceoffiction)isacriticallyrelevantactbecausegenres“specifytheproperuseof
aparticularculturalartifact”—they“ensuretheirappropriatereception”andexclude“undesirable
responses”(Jameson1981, pp. 106–7). “Genreguidesinterpretation”; it“structure[s]ourreading,
guidingthecourseitwilltake,ourexpectationsofwhatitwillencounter”(Frow2006,pp. 101–3).
Arts2018,7,32;doi:10.3390/arts7030032 www.mdpi.com/journal/arts
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Therefore,theaudienceresponse,andultimatelythesuccessofacomicamongcriticsandotherreaders,
isconnectedtotheidentificationofitsgenre. However,whatgenrepreciselydoesAkirabelongto?
Fromtoday’sperspective, Akiraisregardedascyberpunk—agenrethathaditsheydayjustatthe
sametimewhenO¯tomo’smangawasfirstpublishedintheWesternworld. However,wasitactually
identified as cyberpunk back then? And, did the popularity of the cyberpunk genre really play a
roleinthesuccessofthismanga? Toanswerthesequestions,weneedtofirstaskwhetherpeoplein
thelate1980sandearly1990swerefamiliarwiththeconceptofcyberpunkatall. Wealsoneedto
verifythatAkiraisinfactacyberpunkcomic. Furthermore,inordertodoso,weneedtodefinewhat
cyberpunkactuallyis. Thesequestionsinreverseorderresultintheoutlineofthisarticle: Section2is
abriefdefinitionofcyberpunk,followedbyareappraisalofAkiraascyberpunkinSection3. Section4
providesthechronologicalcontextofcyberpunkingeneral,andSection5,thecentrepieceofthistext,
isananalysisofmagazinereviewswithwhichthegenreawarenessofthereadersofAkiraisgauged.
2. TheConceptofCyberpunk
Thereisnouniversallyagreed-upondefinitionofcyberpunk.Someauthorsevengoasfarastodeny
cyberpunkanyusefulnessasaconcept,claimingthattheterm“served[... ]onlytoprovideafacile
adjectivefortheworkingvocabularyoflazyjournalistsandunimaginativeblurb-writers”(Womack2000)
andwonderingwhether“weshouldsimplystoptalkingabout‘cyberpunkSF’,thatwittycoinageof
[Gardner] Dozois’s? Perhaps it might be more useful to say that there is the writer William Gibson,
andthenthereareacoupleofexpertPRmen[...]whoknowfullwellthecommercialvalueofaninstantly
recognizablelabel,andarestickingoneontodisparateproducts?”(Suvin[1989] 1991).Othersinsiston
eithercyberneticbodymodificationsorcyberspace(orboth)asnecessaryelementsofcyberpunkfiction,
howeversuchnarrowdefinitionswouldexcludemanystoriesthataretypicallyregardedascyberpunk.
Instead,forthepurposesofthisarticle,theconceptofcyberpunkisbetterdescribedinthewords
ofIstvanCsicsery-Ronay(Csicsery-Ronay[1988] 1991): cyberpunkisabout“alienatedsubcultures
thatadoptthehigh-techtoolsoftheestablishmenttheyare[...] alienatedfrom”. WhenCsicsery-Ronay
wrote this, he meant it as criticism of the entire concept of cyberpunk and felt that the cyberpunk
writersdidnotsucceedinconvincinglyconveyingthesesubcultures’“political-aestheticmotives”.
However,Csicsery-Ronay’squotationcanneverthelessserveasasuccinctdefinitionofcyberpunk,
albeitonlyinwordandnotinspirit. Inasimilarvein,BruceSterling,oneoftheprotagonistsofthe
cyberpunkmovementinsciencefictionliterature,describedcyberpunkasan“unholyallianceofthe
technicalworldandtheworldoforganizeddissent”inhisprefacetotheMirrorshadesanthologywhich
becameasortofcyberpunkmanifesto(Sterling[1986] 1991). Inanothertext(Sterling[1986] 2003),
Sterlingcondensedthisformulatotheclassicphrase, “lowlifeandhightech”(oftenrephrasedby
othersas“hightechandlowlife”).
Inotherwords,thecyberpunkdefinitionusedherereliesontwonecessarycharacteristics: apiece
ofcyberpunkfictionneedstofeaturehightechnology,andthattechnologyneedstobeemployedby
anti-establishment,counter-culturalcharactersfromthefringesofsociety. Itshouldbenoted,however,
thataformalorthematicdefinitionofanygenreisonlyvalidwithregardtoaspecificperiodintime
(inthiscase,thelate1980sandearly1990s). Genretheoryhasstressedthatgenresarenotstaticbut
evolveormutateovertimeastheircharacteristicsarenegotiatedandrenegotiatedbyauthors,critics,
andaudiences(Altman1984;Frow2006,p. 139;Rieder2017,pp. 5,66). Infact,morerecentdefinitions
ofcyberpunkputmoreemphasison“informationnetworks”,“virtualreality”(Nicholls[1993] 1999),
“theinformationexplosion”(Clute2003),“computertechnology,artificialintelligence”(Prucher2007),
“global information exchanges”, “massive interlinked data networks, virtual realities”, “flows of
information”,and“virtualcyberspaces”(HigginsandDuncan2013). Thisshiftfromhightechnology
ingeneraltocomputertechnologyandinformationnetworksinparticularmighthavebeeninfluenced
bytheincreasingimpactoftheInternetonsocietyfromthe1990sonwards.
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3. AkAirrtas 2a0s18C, 7y, xb FeOrRp PuEnEkR REVIEW 3 of 13
I3s. AAkkiirraa ,asa cCcyobredripnugntko thedefinitionthatwasderivedfromCsicsery-RonayandSterling(high
technologyemployedbyanti-establishmentcharacters),acyberpunkcomic? Oncloserinspection,
Is Akira, according to the definition that was derived from Csicsery-Ronay and Sterling (high
onlyfivecyberpunkelementscanbeidentifiedinAkirathatplayanyrolewhatsoever,whicharelisted
technology employed by anti-establishment characters), a cyberpunk comic? On closer inspection,
hereionnloyr dfievre ocfybtherepirunsikg neliefimcaenntcse .can be identified in Akira that play any role whatsoever, which are
listed here in order of their significance.
• Tetsuo’sarm(Figure1): themetallicarmofTetsuo, oneoftheprotagonistsofthemanga, isthe
c• loseTstettshuino’gs ianrmA k(iFriagutorea 1c)y: btheer nmeetitcallliimc abr.mIt oisf Tveistisbuloe, foonret hofe tfhires ptrtoimtaegoinnivstosl .o4f tohne pm.a1n0g6a,( aisl ltvhoe lume
closest thing in Akira to a cybernetic limb. It is visible for the first time in vol. 4 on p. 106 (all
andpagenumbersrefertotheJapanese6-volumecollectededitionfrom1984–1993).Intheprevious
volume and page numbers refer to the Japanese 6-volume collected edition from 1984–1993). In
volume,weseehowhisnaturalarmisshotoffbyalaserblast,butwedonotgettoseehowthe
the previous volume, we see how his natural arm is shot off by a laser blast, but we do not get
mechanicalarmgotattachedtohisbody(theanimatedfilmadaptation,however,showshowmetal
to see how the mechanical arm got attached to his body (the animated film adaptation, however,
parts levitate towards his body and are assembled into the arm through supernatural powers).
shows how metal parts levitate towards his body and are assembled into the arm through
Therefore,eventhoughTetsuo’sarmlooksverymuchlikeacyberpunkmotif,itisprobablynota
supernatural powers). Therefore, even though Tetsuo’s arm looks very much like a cyberpunk
piecemoofthifi,g iht tise cphr,oabtalbelays tnnoot tao npeietchea otfw haisghd etveechlo, paetd lebaystt hneot“ eosntae btlhisaht mweanst ”de(iv.ee.l,otpheedg boyv etrhnem ent,
milita“erys,taobrliisnhdmuesntrty”) (,ia.en.,d ththe ugso,vietrdnomeesnnto, mtsitlritiacrtlyy, ofirt itnhdeudsetrfyin),i tainodn tohfucsy, bite drpouesn nkogti svternictalyb ofivt et.hTe hisis
a crudceiafilnpitiooinn to,f acsybtherepaupnkp rgoivpernia atiboonveo. fTphirse -ise xai csrtuincgial“ peostinabt,l aissh tmhee anptp”rtoepcrhiantoiolno goyf ,prraet-hexeirsttihnagn the
auton“eosmtaobulisshcmreeantito” nteocfhnnoewlogtye,c hrantohleorg tyh,ains wthhe aatujtuosntiofmieosuths ecr“epautinonk ”opf anretwo ftetchhenwoloorgdy,“ icsy wbehrapt unk”.
justifies the “punk” part of the word “cyberpunk”. Later, we see a mutation spreading over
Later,weseeamutationspreadingoverTetsuo’swholebodystartingfromhisarm(fromvol. 5,
Tetsuo’s whole body starting from his arm (from vol. 5, p. 263), and later still, his body fuses
p. 263), and later still, his body fuses with machines, such as a jet fighter plane and an aircraft
with machines, such as a jet fighter plane and an aircraft carrier (vol. 5, p. 352). Again, these
carrier(vol.5,p.352).Again,thesemotifsmightseemtypicalofcyberpunkstories,howeverstrictly
motifs might seem typical of cyberpunk stories, however strictly speaking, they do not meet the
speaking,theydonotmeetthecriteriaofourdefinition.
criteria of our definition.

(a)

(b)

Figure1.Cont.
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(c)
Figure 1. (a) panel from Katsuhiro Ōtomo, Akira (Kōdansha), vol. 4 (1987), p. 106; (b) vol. 5 (1990), p.
Figure1. (a)panelfromKatsuhiroO¯tomo,Akira(Ko¯dansha),vol. 4(1987),p. 106;(b)vol. 5(1990),
263; (c) vol. 5 (1990), p. 352.
p.263;(c)vol.5(1990),p.352. (c)
• Motorcycles (Figure 2): not all of the motorcycles that are depicted in Akira are high tech
Figure 1. (a) panel from Katsuhiro Ōtomo, Akira (Kōdansha), vol. 4 (1987), p. 106; (b) vol. 5 (1990), p.
machinery, however some are definitely pieces of futuristic technology. The first one of these is
• Motor2c6y3;c (lce)s v(oFl.i 5g u(1r9e902)), :pn. 3o5t2a. llofthemotorcyclesthataredepictedinAkiraarehightechmachinery,
protagonist Kaneda’s motorbike, which is even equipped with a display screen (vol. 1, pp. 10–
however2s2o).m Keanaerdea dise tfihen hiteealdy opf aie gcaensg ooff tfeuentuagreis mtioctoterccyhcnlisotsl,o agny a.nTtih-eestfiabrlsisthomneento, lfotwhleifsee griosuppr otagonist
• Motorcycles (Figure 2): not all of the motorcycles that are depicted in Akira are high tech
Kaneda’somf cohtaorarcbteikrse i,f wthheriec ehviesr wevase noneeq, wuhipicphe mdawkeist hhisa mdoitsoprclyacyles ac rstereonng( vcyoble.r1pu,npkp m. 1ot0if–. 2T2w).o Kanedais
machinery, however some are definitely pieces of futuristic technology. The first one of these is
other instances of motorcycles in Akira are noteworthy: in vol. 5 on p. 55, Kaneda is given a new
theheadofagangofteenagemotorcyclists,ananti-establishment,lowlifegroupofcharactersif
protmagootonricsyt cKlea bnye dhais’ sa lmlyo, Jtookrebri.k Iet ,i sw ahniocthh eirs feuvtuenri setiqcu-liopopkeindg wmiothd eal, danisdp ltahyis sticmreee Kna (nveodla. 1is, npopt. 10–
there2e2v)e. rgKowainnages dtoao unisse et, hitwe f ohhrei fcauhdn ,om bfu aat k gtoea scnoghn iofsrfo mtnete oTnteaotsgruceo ym wcolhetooa rhcasystc rsloeisinztesg,d ca tynh eba penortipl-iteuiscntaalk balnmidsho mmtiiflei.tnaTtr,wy l opowowolitefher eignrr oinuspt ances
ofmootof crhctyhaerca lcceittsyer.i snE viAfe tnkh imerraoer aeer vaeenrnt iw-oetsaetsaw bolnoiserh,tm hweyhn:itc iihns tmvhoea klu.es5es ohofin st hmpe .osat5om5r,ec yKmcaloent oaer dbsitakroei nsagtg tchivyeb eeennrdpa uonfn etkhw em smoertiioef.ts o Trwcoy cleby
hisalloyt,hJeo(rv kionel.sr 6t.a,I nptcpie.s s4 a1o9nf fomf.t)oh bteoyr rKcfyaunctleuedsra ii sannt iAdc k-hilirosa o caokrmein pngaontmieowno odKreetihl ,ayga: aniinnd svtto htlh.i es5 U toinnmi tpeed. 5K N5a,a ntKioeandnsea tdrioaso inps sog. tivgeoni an gnetwo useit
forfumn,obtourtcytoclec obny fhriosn atllTye, tJosukeor.w Ith iso ahnaosthseeri zfuetdurtihsteicp-loooliktiincagl maonddelm, ainlidta trhyisp tiomwee Krainnedthae isc nitoyt. Even
going to use it for fun, but to confront Tetsuo who has seized the political and military power in
moreanti-establishmentistheuseofthesamemotorbikeattheendoftheseries(vol. 6,pp.419ff.)
the city. Even more anti-establishment is the use of the same motorbike at the end of the series
byKanedaandhiscompanionKeiagainsttheUnitedNationstroops.
(vol. 6, pp. 419 ff.) by Kaneda and his companion Kei against the United Nations troops.

(a)

(a)

Figure2.Cont.
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(b)

(c)
Figure 2. (a) panel from Katsuhiro Ōtomo, Akira (Kōdansha), vol. 1 (1984), p. 16; (b) vol. 5 (1990), p.
Figure2.(a)panelfromKatsuhiroO¯tomo,Akira(Ko¯dansha),vol.1(1984),p.16;(b)vol.5(1990),p.55;
55; (c) vol. 6 (1993), p. 420.
(c)vol.6(1993),p.420.
• Caretaker robots (Figure 3): the so-called caretaker robots, or Security Balls, could even be
• Caretacoknesridreorbedo tAsr(tiFfiicgiualr Ient3e)l:ligtehnecesso, -hcoawlleevderc oanrleyt aink ethrer boebgointsn,inogr oSf ethcue rmitayngBaa wllsh,enc othuelyd aerve en be
still controlled by the military. When Kaneda and his friends get their hands on one of these
consideredArtificialIntelligences,howeveronlyinthebeginningofthemangawhentheyare
robots, they convert it into a manually operated transport vehicle (vol. 5, p. 152). Later still, Joker
still controlled by the military. When Kaneda and his friends get their hands on one of these
reworks a caretaker robot into a combat vehicle which is equipped with a machine gun (vol. 5,
robots,theyconvertitintoamanuallyoperatedtransportvehicle(vol. 5,p. 152). Laterstill,Joker
p. 332).
reworksacaretakerrobotintoacombatvehiclewhichisequippedwithamachinegun(vol.5,
p.332).
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(a)

(b)
Figure 3. (a) panel from Katsuhiro Ōtomo, Akira (Kōdansha), vol. 5 (1990), p. 152; (b) vol. 5 (1990), p.
Figure3. (a)panelfromKatsuhiroO¯tomo,Akira(Ko¯dansha),vol. 5(1990),p. 152;(b)vol. 5(1990),
332.
p.332.
• Flying platforms (Figure 4): the flying platforms are another example of advanced military
technology. The first one of these aircraft is captured by protagonists Kei and Kaneda already in
• Flying platforms (Figure 4): the flying platforms are another example of advanced military
vol. 2 on p. 190. Later, it is again Joker who assembles his own flying platform from parts of the
technology. ThefirstoneoftheseaircraftiscapturedbyprotagonistsKeiandKanedaalreadyin
wrecks of others and gives it an idiosyncratic paint job (vol. 5, p. 314). At the end of the manga,
vol. 2oan flpyi.n1g9 p0l.atLfoartmer i,si toniscea mgaoirne uJosekde bryw Khaoneadsas, eJomkebrl,e asnhd itsheoiwr anlliflesy aingaginpslta thtfeo Urmnitefrdo Nmatpioanrst softhe
wrecksfoorfcoest h(veorls. 6a,n pd. 4g1i1v).e sitanidiosyncraticpaintjob(vol. 5,p. 314). Attheendofthemanga,
aflyingplatformisoncemoreusedbyKaneda,Joker,andtheiralliesagainsttheUnitedNations
forces(vol. 6,p. 411).
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(a)

Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 13
(b)

(c)
Figure 4. (a) panel from Katsuhiro Ōtomo, Akira (Kōdansha), vol. 2 (1985), p. 190; (b) vol. 5 (1990), p.
Figure4. (a)panelfromKatsuhiroO¯tomo,Akira(Ko¯dansha),vol. 2(1985),p. 190;(b)vol. 5(1990),
314; (c) vol. 6 (1993), p. 411.
p.314;(c)vol.6(1993),p.411.
• Laser rifles (Figure 5): laser beam firearms are experimental technology that are developed by
the military. A laser rifle is stolen by Kei and Kaneda in vol. 2 on p. 72 and is used against the
military. In vol. 5 on p. 312, Joker reveals that he too has obtained one such weapon which is
subsequently used in the fight against Tetsuo.

(a)
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Arts2018,7,32 (c) 8of13
Figure 4. (a) panel from Katsuhiro Ōtomo, Akira (Kōdansha), vol. 2 (1985), p. 190; (b) vol. 5 (1990), p.
314; (c) vol. 6 (1993), p. 411.
• Laserrifles(Figure5): laserbeamfirearmsareexperimentaltechnologythataredevelopedby
them•i litaLrays.erA rifllaess e(Frigriuflree 5i)s: lsatsoerl ebneabmy fiKreeairmasn adreK eaxnpeerdimaeinntavl toelc.hn2oolongyp t.ha7t2 aaren ddeviseloupseedd bay gainstthe
military.tIhne vmoillit.ar5y.o An lpas.er3 r1i2fl,e Jiso skteolrenr ebvye Kaelis atnhda Ktahneedtao ion hvoals. 2o obnt api.n 7e2 danodn ise ussuedc hagwainesatp thoen whichis
military. In vol. 5 on p. 312, Joker reveals that he too has obtained one such weapon which is
subsequentlyusedinthefightagainstTetsuo.
subsequently used in the fight against Tetsuo.

Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 13
(a)

(b)
Figure 5. (a) panel from Katsuhiro Ōtomo, Akira (Kōdansha), vol. 2 (1985), p. 72; (b) vol. 5 (1990), p.
Figure5. (a)panelfromKatsuhiroO¯tomo,Akira(Ko¯dansha),vol. 2(1985),p. 72;(b)vol. 5(1990),
312.
p.312.
Apart from these five recurring objects, there are hardly any further cyberpunk elements in
Akira. One might say that Tetsuo appropriates the cryogenic chamber, a piece of governmental high
Apartfromthesefiverecurringobjects,therearehardlyanyfurthercyberpunkelementsinAkira.
tech, when he carries Kaori’s dead body there (vol. 6, p. 201), however the functionality of the
Onemighcthsaamybetrh—aitf Tite itss sutioll afupnpctrioonparl iaatt ealsl atht tehicsr pyooingte—nciacncnhota pmosbseibrl,ya brpiniegc Keaoorfi gboacvke tron lmifee; nmtoarle hightech,
whenhecalikrreilye,s thKisa oplraic’es ids emaedanbt otod bye tah seorret o(vf boul.ri6al, spit.e2 f0or1 h),ehr douwe etov eitrs tshymebfuolnicc mtieoannainligt.y Noefiththere ccahn amber—if
the Colonel’s improvised, unauthorised use of the satellite laser weapon called “SOL” against Tetsuo
itisstillfunctionalatallatthispoint—cannotpossiblybringKaoribacktolife;morelikely,thisplace
in the second half of the story (e.g., vol. 6, p. 20) be considered anti-establishment, and is thus not
is meant to be a sort of burial site for her due to its symbolic meaning. Neither can the Colonel’s
cyberpunk, because he still believes to act in the interest of the official government. Some might
improvisecdo,nusindaeru tthheo sryinstehdetiuc,s meionfd-tahlteersiangte dllriutgesl tahsaet rarwe efeaaptuornedc raelcluerdre“ntSlyO iLn ”Akaigraa tion bste Ta ectysbueropuinnkt hesecond
halfofthetsrtooprey, h(oew.ge.v,evro, wl.h6i,lep s.u2c0h )dbruegcso anres iad tehreemdea inn tmi-aensyta cbylbiesrhpmunekn stt,oarinesd, iits itsh suafse ntoo stacyy tbheart pthueny k,because
are neither a sufficient nor a necessary cyberpunk characteristic.
hestillbelievestoactintheinterestoftheofficialgovernment. Somemightconsiderthesynthetic,
By and large, at least some cyberpunk elements are undeniably found in Akira. However,
mind-alteringdrugsthatarefeaturedrecurrentlyinAkiratobeacyberpunktrope,however,while
elements from other genres abound as well—supernatural powers from the “science fantasy” genre,
suchdrugsthae rseetatinthg eomf ae ciitny min arnuiynsc (yinb ethrep usencoknsdt oharlife os,f ithtei scosmafiec) tforosma ypotshta-atptohcealyypatrice fnicetiiotnh—ersoa tshuatf ficientnor
anecessarAykcirya breesripstus tnok bec hreaardailcyt eanrids wtich.oleheartedly pigeonholed into the cyberpunk genre.
4. Cyberpunk in the Late 1980s and Early 1990s
Cyberpunk originated in science fiction literature, with the central author here being William
Gibson. His first published short story, “Fragments of a Hologram Rose” from 1977, already
contained some cyberpunk themes. With his subsequent short stories such as “Johnny Mnemonic”
(1981) and “Burning Chrome” (1982), Gibson built a near-future world in which he then set his
seminal novel Neuromancer (1984) which can be regarded as the nucleus of the cyberpunk genre.
Shortly before Neuromancer, the term “cyberpunk” was coined by Bruce Bethke’s eponymous short
story, which was first published in 1983. It was not until 1984, however, that this term was applied to
a group of science fiction writers around William Gibson (Dozois 1984). Another important event in
the formation of the cyberpunk genre was the publication of Mirroshades: The Cyberpunk Anthology in
1986, the preface of which, written by editor Bruce Sterling, gave the cyberpunk movement its
manifesto.
Cyberpunk was also influential in film. The most important cyberpunk film, Ridley Scott’s Blade
Runner, was already released in 1982, which makes it cyberpunk avant la lettre. Of course, both Blade
Runner and Paul Verhoeven’s Total Recall from 1990 are based on much older stories by Philip K.
Dick, however the film versions proved to have a stronger impact. Also noteworthy in the context of
cyberpunk are the films of David Cronenberg, primarily Videodrome (1983), as is another Paul
Arts2018,7,32 9of13
Byandlarge,atleastsomecyberpunkelementsareundeniablyfoundinAkira.However,elements
fromothergenresaboundaswell—supernaturalpowersfromthe“sciencefantasy”genre,thesetting
ofacityinruins(inthesecondhalfofthecomic)frompost-apocalypticfiction—sothatAkiraresiststo
bereadilyandwholeheartedlypigeonholedintothecyberpunkgenre.
4. CyberpunkintheLate1980sandEarly1990s
Cyberpunkoriginatedinsciencefictionliterature,withthecentralauthorherebeingWilliam
Gibson. Hisfirstpublishedshortstory,“FragmentsofaHologramRose”from1977,alreadycontained
somecyberpunkthemes. Withhissubsequentshortstoriessuchas“JohnnyMnemonic”(1981)and
“BurningChrome”(1982),Gibsonbuiltanear-futureworldinwhichhethensethisseminalnovel
Neuromancer (1984) which can be regarded as the nucleus of the cyberpunk genre. Shortly before
Neuromancer,theterm“cyberpunk”wascoinedbyBruceBethke’seponymousshortstory,whichwas
firstpublishedin1983. Itwasnotuntil1984,however,thatthistermwasappliedtoagroupofscience
fictionwritersaroundWilliamGibson(Dozois1984). Anotherimportanteventintheformationofthe
cyberpunkgenrewasthepublicationofMirroshades: TheCyberpunkAnthologyin1986,theprefaceof
which,writtenbyeditorBruceSterling,gavethecyberpunkmovementitsmanifesto.
Cyberpunk was also influential in film. The most important cyberpunk film, Ridley Scott’s
Blade Runner, was already released in 1982, which makes it cyberpunk avant la lettre. Of course,
bothBladeRunnerandPaulVerhoeven’sTotalRecallfrom1990arebasedonmucholderstoriesby
PhilipK.Dick,howeverthefilmversionsprovedtohaveastrongerimpact. Alsonoteworthyinthe
contextofcyberpunkarethefilmsofDavidCronenberg,primarilyVideodrome(1983),asisanother
Paul Verhoeven film, RoboCop (1987), as well as the James Cameron films, The Terminator (1984)
and Terminator 2: Judgment Day, the latter of which was commercially the most successful film of
1991worldwide.
However, therewerealsocyberpunkcomicsintheWesternworldbeforeoratthesametime
asAkira. Thefollowingtitlesappeartobethemostimportantofthese: TheLongTomorrowbyDan
O’BannonandMœbius(USrelease1977),JudgeDreddbyvariousauthors(from1977),Ro¯ninbyFrank
Miller(1983–1984),ShatterbyPeterGillisandMichaelSaenz(1985–1988),Appleseed—anothermanga
thatwasreleasedintheUSinthesameyearasAkira—byMasamuneShirow(1988),andHardBoiledby
FrankMillerandGeofDarrow(1990–1992).
Considering all of these developments in the fields of literature, film, and comics, it seems
likelythatcomicreaderswerefamiliarwiththeconcept(thoughnotnecessarilytheexplicitlabel)of
cyberpunk at the time when Akira was first released in America (1988) and Europe (1990/1991).
Furthermore, many cyberpunk stories were set in a fictional future Japan or other East Asian
countries (Tatsumi 2006, pp. 44–47, 111) which might have made it easier for Western readers to
drawaconnectionbetweenAkiraandcyberpunk.
5. GenreDesignationsinMagazineReviewsofAkira
Did readers recognise Akira as cyberpunk? To find an approximate answer to this question,
reviewsandothertextsaboutAkirafrommagazinesandnewspapersweresearchedforanytermsor
phrasesthatplaceAkirainagenreorputitinanykindofcontext. Beginningwiththeanglophone
world,thefirstarticleonAkiraisanannouncementfromtheComicsBuyer’sGuidefromJanuary1988,
whichcallsAkiraa“colorseriesaboutpost-holocaustmutants”. InMarch1988,thesamemagazineran
anadvertisementbyWestwindDistributorswhichannouncedAkiraas“ascience-fictionadventure
tale”. TheComicsJournalidentifiedAkiraas“animportedsciencefictionJapanesemanga”inApril1988.
MarvelAge,inAugust1988,calledit“ascience-fictionthriller”.InMay1989,AdvanceComicsreferredto
Akirasimplyas“theJapaneseSFseries”,andinJanuary1990,thesamemagazinenoteda“shiftintone
fromhardwareSFtoapost-apocalypsesaga”. Theonlyreferencetothecyberpunkgenrewithregard
toAkiraisfoundintheDecember1988issueofAmazingHeroes: “Elementsofthestoryremindedmeof
theSprawlstoriesandnovelsofWilliamGibson,thehighpriestofcyber-punk[sic]. Otomodealswith
Arts2018,7,32 10of13
severalofGibson’sthemes: thefateofdirectionlessyouthinatechnologicalworld,thepossibilityof
heroismandthevalueoffriendshipinwhatmightseemtobeunsalvageableindividuals.”
InGermany,thesituationwaslargelythesame: Akirawasidentifiedassciencefictioningeneral
orassomeothergenre,butnotcyberpunk. In1991,EpiceditorArchieGoodwinwasquotedinthe
GermancomicmagazineICOM-INFO(alltranslationsmine)saying,“Thestorybelongstoscience
fiction.”Also,in1991,Rraah!,anotherimportantGermancomicmagazine,sawinAkiraa“trailblazer
fortheinfluentialviolenttendenciesofmodernJapanesecomics”. In1992,Rraah! spoketoanewAkira
volume,“oncemorethere’shighspeedaction”,andin1994,thesamemagazinereferredtoAkiraas
“thefuturisticthriller”. Inareviewoftheanimeadaptationfrom1991,theGermanfilmmagazine
Cinemaalsomentionedthemangasource,callingita“sciencefictionepic”. AnotherGermancomic
magazine,Comixene,identifiedAkiraasan“adventureseries”in1995,andinthesameissue,itclaimed,
“OtomoiscalledtheRidleyScottoftheLandoftheRisingSun”. Thislaststatementistheonlyone
thatcanbesaidtomakesomeconnectionbetweenAkiraandcyberpunk,howeverasthearticlein
whichitappearsisaboutKatsuhiroO¯tomoandHayaoMiyazakiasbothcomicauthorsandanime
directors,itisnotclearwhetherthisstatementreferstoO¯tomoasthecreatorofAkirathemangaor
Akiratheanime.
Bywayofcomparison,journalistictextsabouttheanimatedfilmadaptationofAkira,whichwas
theatricallyreleasedintheWestbetween1989and1991, shallalsobeconsideredhere. Incontrast
tothereviewsofthemangadiscussedabove,thefilmreviewsquotedbelowrepresentonlyasmall
samplewhichwasselectedratherarbitrarily. OncemorebeginningwithEnglish-languagereviews,
theearliestoneinthissamplewaspublishedintheWashingtonPostin1989,sayingofthefictionalNeo
TokyoinwhichAkiraissetthat“Therebuiltcity[is]lookinglikeananimatedBladeRunnerprototype”,
andthat“ThereareseveralScanners-styleshowdowns,AlteredStates-likehallucinationsandnoneof
thecomicreleaseusuallyfoundincartoons.”In1990,theSeattleTimesalsomentioned“’Neo-Tokyo,’
anendlessmetropoliswhichgetsmuchofitsvisualinspirationfromBladeRunnerandBrazil[...]”.
TheBritishMonthlyFilmBulletinwrotein1991that“ThefilmversionsitscomfortablybetweenBlade
Runnerand2001”andis“closertoCronenberg’s‘newflesh’thantotheorthodoxversionsofgenetic
engineering”. OntheoccasionofthelaserdiscreleaseofAkira,Timemagazinesaidin1993that“[Neo]
Tokyo is imagined down to the last noodle shop and intersection, a place of deep night and lurid
neonthatlookslikeBladeRunneronspoiledmushrooms.”Noneofthesetextsmentionedcyberpunk
explicitly,howeveritisstrikingthatallfourofthemcomparethefilmtothe(proto-)cyberpunkclassic
BladeRunner.
This tendency is also apparent in German texts about Akira the anime. The comic magazine
ICOM-INFO,thistimereferringtothefilm,saidin1991,“OnecouldrankAkiraamongclassicssuchas
BladeRunnerorRoboCop”(again,alltranslationsmine). Intheaforementioned1991issueofCinema,
thefilmisdescribedlikethis: “KatsuhiroOtomo’sfuturisticanimatedfilmAkira,likeRidleyScott’s
BladeRunner,PaulVerhoeven’sRoboCop,orDavidCronenberg’sVideodrome,givesoffthefoulsmellof
doominahyper-technocraticworld.“Thesametextlaterexplicitlyassignsthecyberpunklabel: “Even
without machine men, Akira, like Blade Runner, belongs to post-apocalyptic cyberpunk”. Another
Germanfilmmagazine,Filmdienst,notedin1991“themorbidmoodofBladeRunner”,andsaidthat
Akira“rangesfromBladeRunneroverE.T.backtoRebelWithoutaCause”andcontains“actionorgies
intheveinofRoboCop”. Mostextensively,cyberpunkiswrittenaboutintheAkirafilmreviewofthe
Berlincitymagazine,Tip,alsoin1991: “Akira’spsychodemonsarenoavant-gardespecter,onlythe
cyberpunkisanewphenomenon. CyberpunkisthephilosophyofAkira,andisexplainedbyAkira’s
pressdepartmentasfollows: ‘Cyberpunkisaphilosophythatcanshapetheworldinitsownimage
andcreateaself-mutilatingfreedom,thatis,animagethatangrilygrowlsback.’ Evenifnoonehas
growledinthefirstplace.”
WhydidjournalistsreadilyidentifyAkiratheanimeascyberpunk,butnotAkirathemanga?There
aretwomainreasonsforthis. Ontheonehand,consideroncemorethelistofcyberpunkelementsin
AkirathemangathataregivenaboveinSection3. Thesecyberpunkscenesappearindifferentissues