Handling of Combustion. and Emission- Abatement Wastes from Coal-Fired Power Plants

199 Pages·2012·10.35 MB·English

Biological Services Program
FWS/0 BS-80/33
September 1980
Handling of Combustion. and Emission
Abatement Wastes from Coal-Fired Power Plants:
Implications for Fish and Wildlife Resources
QH
540 1ice of Research and Development
.U56
S. Environmental Protection Agency
no.80/
33
h and Wildlife Service
· .S. Department of the Interior
The Biological Services Program was established within the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service to supply scientific information and meth
odologies on key environmental issues which impact fish and wildlife
resources and their supporting ecosystems. The mission of the Program
is as follows:
1. To strengthen the Fish and Wildlife Service in its role as a
primary source of information on national fish and wildlife
resources, particularly in respect to environmental impact
assessment.
2. To gather, analyze, and present information that will aid
decision makers in the identification and resolution of
problems associated with major land and water use changes.
3. To provide better ecological information and evaluation for
Department of the Interior development programs, such as those
relating to energy development.
Information developed by the Biological Services Program is in
tended for use in the planning and decision making process to prevent or
minimize the impact of development on fish and wildlife. Biological
Services research activities and technical assistance services are based
on an analysis of the issues, the decision makers involved and their
information needs, and an evaluation of the state of the art to identify
information gaps and determine priorities. This is a strategy to assure
that the products produced and disseminated will be time~y and useful.
Biological Services projects have been initiated in the following
areas:
0 Coal extraction and conversion
0 Power plants
0 Geothermal, mineral, and oil shale development
0 Water resource analysis, including stream alterations and
western water allocation
0 Coastal ecosystem~ and Outer Continental Shelf development
0 Systems and inventory, including National Wetlands Inventory,
habitat classification and analysis, and information transfer
The Program consists of the Office of Biological Services in Wash
ington, D.C., which is responsible for overall planning and management;
National Teams which provide the Program's central scientific and tech
nical expertise and who arrange for contracting Biological Services
studies with States, universities, consulting firms, and others; Regional
staff who provide a link to problems at the operating level; and staff
at certai~ Fish and Wildlife Service research facilities who conduct in-
house research studies. i\Jt~l~
Alaska Resources
Library & Information Services
Anchoral!f A.laska
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5lf0
FWS/OBS-80/33 , l-lS &
September 1980
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HANDLING OF COMBUSTION AND EMISSION-ABATEMENT WASTES
FROM COAL-FIREQ POWER P.L ANT§: /
~ ~ .
IMPLICATIONS FOR FISH AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES
Lars F. Soholt, Project Leader
Robert W. Vocke, Assistant Project Leader
N. J. Beskid D. D. Ness
W. K. Derickson B. Siskind
M. J. Knight W. S. White
D. J. Wyman, Editor
Division of Environmental Impact Studies
Argonne National Laboratory
Michael Avery/James P. Bennett
Project Officers
National Power Plant Team
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
2929 Plymouth Road
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105
Prepared for
National Power Plant Team
Office of Biological Services
Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Department. of the Interior
ARLIS
Alaska Resources
Library & Information Services
Anchorage Alaska
DISCLAIMER
The opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this report are those
of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Office of Biological Services,
Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, nor does mention of trade names or
commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use by the Federal government.
The facilities of Argonne National Laboratory are owned by the United States Government.
Under the terms of a contract (W-31-109-Eng-38) among the. U.S. Department of Energy, Argonne
Universities Association and The University of Chicago, the University employs the staff and
operates the Laboratory in accordance with policies and programs formulated, approved and
reviewed by the Association.
MEMBERS OF ARGONNE UNIVERSITIES ASSOCIATION
The University of Arizona The University of Kansas The Ohio State University
Carnegie-Mellon University Kansas State University Ohio University
Case Western Reserve University Loyola University of Chicago The Pennsylvania State University
The University of Chicago Marquette University Purdue ~niversity
University of Cincinnati The University of Michigan Saint Louis University
Illinois Institute of Technology Michigan State University Southern Illinois University
University of Illinois University of Minnesota The University of Texas at Austin
Indiana University University of Missouri University
Washi~gton
The University of Iowa Northwestern University Wayne State University
Iowa State University University of Notre Dame The University of Wisconsin-Madison
The correct cttation for this report is:
Soholt, L.F., et al. 1980. Handling of Combustion and Emission-Abatement Wastes from Coal-Fired
Power Plants: Implications for Fish and Wildlife Resources. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Biological Services Program, National Power Plant Team, FWS/OBS-80/33. 184 pp.
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ABSTRACT
Increased emphasis upon using coal as an energy source and the concomitant
requirements for flue-gas-emission control have led to increased production of solid
wastes, which is expected to accelerate over the next several decades. The goals of
this report are to (1) provide a basic introduction to handling of wastes from coal
combustion and emission abatement and (2) present a procedure for evaluating the
potential for these wastes to impact fish and wildlife resources.
Coal combustion ashes and flue-gas-desulfurization (FGD) sludges, the solid
waste products from coal-fired facilities, contain a number of trace elements that
can be toxic to biota if they are available in sufficient quantities. Both ashes
and FGD sludges are usually deposited in pond or landfill storage areas. Dispersal
of constituents from waste-storage sites occurs primarily by runoff, seepage, and
wind erosion. This report contains qualitative and quantitative methods for eval
uating the potential impacts from these routes of dispersal in site-specific situ
ations. Generally, pond storage methods, even when properly managed, have a greater
impact upon fish and wildlife resources than do landfill methods. Proper management
of storage sites reduces the amount of waste constituents that are dispersed into the
environment.
It is difficult to make site-specific predictions regarding the toxicity of
materials mobilized from the wastes. The potential for uptake of trace elements to
toxic levels is dependent upon a number of factors including (1) pH of the dispersal
and growth media, (2) capacity of the dispersal and growth media to bind elements in
a form unavailable for uptake, (3) magnitude of biological concentration of elements
in primary producers and succeeding trophic levels, and (4) tolerances of individual
species. In this report, we have provided some generalized information that can be
used to estimate the relative likelihood of toxicity problems resulting from dispersal
of trace elements from coal ashes and FGD sludges.
After the active lifetime of a waste-storage. site, revegetation is desirable as
a means of controlling erosion and regaining potential fish and wildlife habitat.
A number of plant species have been shown to successfully establish on fly ash;
however, toxic effects of the ash constituents have been demonstrated in several
cases, and wildlife forage plants have been shown to accumulate some of these con
stituents to potentially toxic levels. Revegetation of FGD sludge has not been well
documented, although ongoing research may provide methods to successfully revegetate
this material.
Four model waste-storage sites are used to illustrate the methods of assessment
presented in this report. Future research needs are identified.
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CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT .... iii
LIST OF FIGURES
X
LIST OF TABLES xi
INTRODUCTION . .
COAL COMBUSTION AND EMISSION-ABATEMENT WASTES 3
Coal Ash Wastes and Their Properties ••... 3
Fly Ash Fraction . . . . . . . • . . . • . . 8
Aggregate Fraction ....••.•..... 12
Flue-Gas-Desulfurization Wastes and Their Properties 12
General Considerations ••.•..•...•....• 12
Chemical and Physical Properties of FGD Scrubber Sludge 15
Characteristics of Scrubber Sludge Leachate ....•. 18
Quantities of Wastes Produced and Water Requirements ... 18
Information Needed for Calculating Quantities of Wastes 18
Methodology for Calculating Quantities of. Wastes 21
References • • . . • • . • . • . . • • • • • . • . . . . . 26
CURRENT PRACTICES FOR HANDLING AND STORING COAL COMBUSTION AND
EMISSION-ABATEMENT WASTES • • • . • • • • 29
Flue-Gas-Desulfurization Sludge Processing 29
Dewatering ... 29
Settling ponds • 29
Thickeners •.. 29
Vacuum filters . 29
Centrifuges •• 30
Dewatering aids . • • • 30
Underdraining Impoundments 30
Chemical Fixation •.•• 30
Forced Oxidation •.•.• 30
Blending with Ash . . . . 31
Coal Ash and Flue-Gas-Desulfurization Sludge Storage 31
Wet Storage (Ponding) 31
Dry Storage (Landfilling) 33
Mine Disposal ••••.. 35
Ocean Disposal •••••• 37
Utilization pf Coal Ash and Flue-Gas-Desulfurization Sludge 37
Ash Utilization . 37
.•
Sludge Utilization 38
References . • • • • 40
v
vi
CONTENTS
Page
POTENTIAL IMPACTS FROM HANDLING AND STORING COAL COMBUSTION AND
EMISSION-ABATEMENT WASTES . . . . 41
Impacts to Terrestrial Ecosystems 41
Loss of Habitat ...... . 41
Potential impacts .... . 41
Evaluating land requirements 42
Evaluating impacts ..... 43
Runoff and Seepage . . . . . . 43
Runoff and erosion potential ..... 44
Seepage and movement of waste constituents 50
Nature of the wastes . . . . . . . . . . 50
Leachate pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Physicochemical properties of soil ........... . 50
~ermeability of waste materials and storage-site substrates 54
Rainfall zone ............ . 54
Predicting quantities of leachate seepage ......... . 54
Landfill leachate production ............... . 54
Pond leachate production ..................... . 58
Potential for adverse effects to groundwater from seepage from unlined
ash and sludge waste-storage sites .. . 59
Wind Erosion and Fugitive Dusting ..... . 62
•.
Interactions of Waste Constituents with Biota 65
Soil microorganisms 65
Vegetation ....... . 65
Animals ........ . 68
· Ecosystem effects 69
Evaluating consequences to ·biota . 71
Use of Waste -Impoundments by Wildlife 72
Impacts to Aquatic Ecosystems ..... 73
Consumptive Water Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Behavior of Constituents of Ash and Sludge Wastes in Aquatic Systems' 75
Potential Impacts from Constituents of Ash and Sludge Wastes .. : . 77
Microorganisms 77
Aquatic plants 78
Invertebrates . , 78
.
Fish ..... . 79
Ecosystems .. . 80
Evaluating consequences to biota 81
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . '82
MANAGEMENT OF STORAGE SITES FOR COAL COMBUSTION AND EMISSION-ABATEMENT WASTES 93
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act ..... . 93
Possible Classification of Ash and Sludge Wastes as Hazardous 94
Implications for Fish and Wildlife Resources 97
Other Laws . . . . . . . . . . 97
Siting and Design Considerations 98
Siting Considerations ..... . 98
Engineering criteria ... : .. 98
Environmental criteria ...... . 98
Institutional and political criteria 99
Economic criteria ..... 99
Reviewing alternative sites 100
Design Considerations 100
Pond designs ....... . 101
Landfill designs ......... . l 01
Operating and Monitoring Storage Sites 102
Operation .......... . 102
Monitoring program ...... . 102
Sampling and analysis of water 102
Physical measurements .... 103
vi"Y
CONTENTS
Page
Lining Ash and Sludge Storage Ponds 104
Flexible Synthetic Liners 104
Admixtures ..... 105
Soil Sealants . . . . . . . · 105
Natural Soil Systems ... 106
·.
Stabilized Wastes .•....•• ./. 106
Compatibility of Liners~and Wastes 106
Controlling Wind and Water Erosion 107
Wind Erosion and Dusting l 07
' Phys i ca 1 methods • 107
Chemical methods .• 110
Vegetative methods •. 110
Water Erosion ...•. 111
Discouraging Wildlife Use of Waste-Storage Ponds 111
References . . . • . . • . . 112
RECLAMATION OF STORAGE SITES FOR COAL COMBUSTION AND EMISSION-ABATEMENT WASTES 115
Reclamation Options ..•...•.•......••...•...... 115
Use of Coal Ash and Flue-Gas-Desulfurization Sludge in Agriculture ... 115
Fly ash . . . . . . • . . . . . • . . . . . . . • . • • . . . • • . . 115
Flue-gas-desulfurization scrubber sludge ..•...•.....•.• 117
Use of Coal Ash and Flue-Gas-Desulfurization Sludge in Land Reclamation 117
Fly ash amendment of acidic coal mining wastes •..•• 117
Scrubber sludge amendment of acidic coal mining wastes ....•.. 120
Revegetation of Storage-Site Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • . 120
Revegetation of coal ash .•......••....••.....• 120
Physical and chemical factors influencing plant growth on fly ash·· 121
Trace elements in fly ash •. 123
Nutrition of plants growing on fly ash 124
Plant establishment on fly ash 125
Revegetation of scrubber sludge 127
Covering Wastes with Soil 127
Permanent Impoundments • • 129
Reclamatinn Site Management 129
Postreclamation Site Management 129
References . . . . • • . 130
ILLUSTRATIVE ASSESSMENTS OF IMPACTS TO FISH AND WILDLIFE FROM FOUR MODEL
STORAGE SITES • . . . . . . . • . . . 135
Western Plant Burning Low-Sulfur Coal 135
Plant Operations .....•.... 135
Handling of Combustion Wastes 135
Description of the Storage-Site Area 136
..
Material Requirements for the Model Plant 137
Coal Combustion Wastes .....••.• 137
Consumptive Use of Water ........ . 137
Loss of Habitat ....•........ 137
Effluent Discharge from the Storage Site . 137
Runoff Dispersal of Coal Combustion Wastes . 137
Leachate Seepage Discharge from the Storage Site 137
Fugitive Dusting . . . . . . . . 138
Reclamation of the Storage Site 138
Consequences to Biota •. 138
Consumptive use of water 138
Loss of habitat •• 138
Effluent discharges 138
Runoff dispersal 138
Leachate seepage • 138
Wind dispersal ... 139
viii
CONTENTS
Page
Ohio River Valley Plant Burning High-Sulfur Coal 139
Plant Operations ........•.... 139
Handling of Combustion Wastes •..... 140
Description of the Storage-Site Area ..• 140
Material Requirements for the Model Plant 141
Coal Combustion Wastes .......•. 141
Consumptive Use of Water . . . . . . . . . 141
Loss of Habitat .•.••.....•.. 141
Effluent Discharge from the Storage Site . 141
Runoff Dispersal of Coal Combustion Wastes 141
Leachate Seepage Discharge from the Storage Site 142
Fugitive Dusting ....... . 142
Reclamation of the Storage Site 142
Consequences to Biota .. 142
Consumptive use of water 142
Loss of habitat .. 142
Effluent discharges 142
Runoff dispersal 142
Leachate seepage . . 142
Wind dispersal ... 143
Texas Plant Burning Lignite 143
Plant Operations ..... 143
Handling of Combustion Wastes .•• 143
Description of the Storage-Site Area .. 144
Material Requirements for the Model Plant 144
Coal Combustion Wastes .......•.. 144
Consumptive Use of Water ........ . 144
Loss of Habitat •.........•.. 145
Effluent. Discharge from the Storage Site . 145
Runoff Dispersal of Coal Combustion Wastes ... 145
Leachate Seepage Discharge from the Storage Site .. 145
Fugitive Dusting ....... . 145
Reclamation of the Storage Site 145
Consequences to Biota .. 145
Consumptive use of water 145
Loss of habitat .. ., 145
.
Effluent discharges 146
Runoff dispersal 146
Leachate seepage 146
Wind dispersal . ., . 147
I
Southeastern Coastal Plant Burning High-Sulfur Coal 147
Plant Operations . . .•...•.• 147
Handling of Combustion Wastes ..... . 147
Description of the Storage-Site Area .. . 147
Material Requirements for the Model Plant 148
Coal Combustion Wastes . . . . . . ..• 148
Consumptive Use of Water .....•... 148
Loss of Habitat ............ . 148
Effluent Discharge from the Storage Site . 148
Runoff Dispersal of Coal Combustion Wastes •.. 148
Leachate Seepage Discharge from the Storage Site 148
Fugitive Dusting .•....•. 148
Reclamation of the Storage Site 149
Consequences to Biota .. 149
Consumptive use of water 149
Loss of habitat .. 149
Effluent discharges 149
Runoff dispersal 150
Leachate seepage .. 150
Wind dispersal •.. 150