Handbook of Thin-Film Technology

384 Pages·2015·24.275 MB·English

by  Hartmut Frey Prof. Dr., Hamid R. Khan Prof. Dr. (eds.)

Hartmut Frey · Hamid R. Khan Editors
Handbook
of Thin-Film
Technology
Handbook of Thin-Film Technology
(cid:2)
Hartmut Frey Hamid R. Khan
Editors
Handbook of Thin-Film
Technology
Editors
Prof.Dr.HartmutFrey Prof.Dr.HamidR.Khan
Esslingen,Germany SchwäbischGmünd,Germany
ISBN978-3-642-05429-7 ISBN978-3-642-05430-3(eBook)
DOI10.1007/978-3-642-05430-3
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2015934012
Springer
©Springer-VerlagBerlinHeidelberg2015
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Springer-Verlag GmbH Berlin Heidelberg is part of Springer Science+Business Media
(www.springer.com)
Acknowledgement
Thinfilmtechnologyhasbecomeanengineforinnovationinthecomputer-
andnetworkingindustry.Thealternativeenergyandtheemission-freedrives
for vehicles, based also on the thin film technology. The Handbook of
Thin-FilmTechnologypresentsacollectionofcurrentknowledgeoncoating
technologies and their applications. Additionally methods for determining
the properties of thin films are also covered. We are very grateful to Mrs.
Dipl.-Ing. CarmenFrey forpreparingand drawingthefiguresof this book.
WewouldalsoliketothanktheManagementandStaffofSpringerPublishing
Company,fortheirsupportandcooperation.
v
Contents
1 ApplicationsandDevelopmentsofThinFilmTechnology . . 1
byH.Frey
2 RelevanceoftheVacuumTechnologyforThinFilmCoatings 5
byH.Frey
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 InfluenceofResidualGasonFilmQuality . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3 GenerationofVacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.4 VacuumMeasurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4.1 ThermalConductivityGauge . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4.2 FrictionVacuumGauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4.3 ColdCathodeIonizationVacuumGauge . . . . . 11
2.4.4 Hot-CathodeIonizationGauge . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4.5 TotalPressureMeasurementinCoatingProcesses 11
2.4.6 PartialPressureMeasurement. . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3 VacuumEvaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
byH.Frey
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2.1 EvaporationProcesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2.2 TransportPhase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2.3 CondensationPhase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3 EvaporationofDifferentMaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3.1 ChemicalElements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3.2 Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3.3 Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.4 VapourDistribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.4.1 SmallSurfaceEvaporators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.4.2 Evaporation Arrangements with Expanded
SourceDistribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.4.3 VapourPropagationwithSmallFreePathLength 34
3.5 EquipmentTechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.5.1 Prefaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.5.2 AuxiliaryEquipmentforEvaporationPlants. . . 38
3.5.3 ElectronEmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.5.4 EvaporationRate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
vii
viii Contents
3.6 IonPlating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.6.1 CharacterizationofIonPlating . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.6.2 InfluenceontheFilmCharacteristics
andConsequencesfortheCoatingProcess. . . . 64
3.6.3 EquipmentforIonPlating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.6.4 StructuralConstitutionoftheIonPlatedFilms . 66
3.6.5 AdhesiveStrengthofIonPlatedFilms . . . . . . 68
3.6.6 ReactiveIonPlating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4 BasicPrincipleofPlasmaPhysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
byH.Frey
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.2 Quasi-Neutrality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.3 CharacteristicQuantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.3.1 LangmuirPlasmaFrequency . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.3.2 DebyeShieldingLength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.3.3 LandauLengthandPlasmaParameters . . . . . . 76
4.4 MotionofChargedParticlesinElectromagneticFields . 77
4.4.1 MaxwellEquations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.4.2 EquationofMotionandLaw
ofConservationofEnergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.4.3 LarmorMotion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.5 CollisionDeterminedPlasmas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.5.1 DistributionofVelocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.5.2 MeanFreePathandCollisionFrequencies. . . . 82
4.5.3 DriftMotionofChargeCarriersinanElectrical
FieldwithConsiderationofCollisions . . . . . . 83
4.5.4 IonizationandRecombination . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.5.5 PlasmaasContinuum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.5.6 TransportationProcesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.6 DischargeModes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.6.1 DirectCurrentDischarges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.6.2 HighFrequencyDischarges . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5 GaseousPhaseandSurfaceProcesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
byH.Frey
5.1 ElementaryGaseousPhaseandSurfaceReactions . . . . 117
5.1.1 EquilibriumConstant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.2 GaseousPhaseKinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.2.1 ConsecutiveReactionsofFirstOrder . . . . . . . 119
5.2.2 ReactionsMovinginOppositeDirections . . . . 121
5.2.3 Three-BodyAccretionCollisions . . . . . . . . . 123
5.2.4 Three-BodyPositive–Negative
IonRecombination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.3 SurfaceProcesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.3.1 NeutralizationofPositiveIonsandEmission
ofSecondaryElectrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Contents ix
5.3.2 AdsorptionandDesorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.3.3 Fragmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6 CathodeSputtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
byH.Frey
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.2 Sputtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.2.1 AngleDistributionofSputteredParticles . . . . . 138
6.2.2 SputteringEffectswithSingle-CrystalSolids . . 139
6.3 CoatingwithSputtering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.4 DCDiodeSputtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.5 TriodeSputtering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.6 RF(RadioFrequency)Sputtering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.7 BiasSputtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
6.8 ReactiveSputtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
6.9 MagnetronDischarges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.9.1 Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.9.2 FunctionoftheMagnetron . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.9.3 EstimationofPlasmaDensity . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.9.4 DischargePower. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.9.5 Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.9.6 Cathodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.9.7 Shutters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
6.9.8 InfraredHeating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.9.9 RateandFilmThicknessMeasuringInstruments 162
6.9.10 Two-ChamberEquipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.9.11 Multi-ChamberEquipments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7 PlasmaTreatmentMethods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
byH.Frey
7.1 PlasmaPolymerization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.1.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.1.2 PhysicsandChemistryofPlasmaPolymerization168
7.2 PlasmaDiffusionTreatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.2.1 DescriptionoftheMethod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.2.2 FundamentalProcesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.2.3 CorrelationsBetweenDifferent
PlasmaParameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
7.2.4 PlasmaNitrationofTitanium . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
7.2.5 PlasmaNitrationofAluminium . . . . . . . . . . 174
7.3 PlasmaSpraying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
7.3.1 ProcessVariants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
8 ParticleBeamSources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
byH.Frey
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
8.2 BasicProcessesofIon–SolidInteraction . . . . . . . . . . 182
8.2.1 LossofEnergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
x Contents
8.2.2 RangeDistances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
8.2.3 CollisionCascadesandRadiationDamage. . . . 186
8.2.4 IonMixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.2.5 IrradiationAmplifiedDiffusion. . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.2.6 SurfaceTextureandGrowthMode. . . . . . . . . 188
8.2.7 DensityandStress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
8.2.8 PhasesinMaterialFilms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
8.3 ParticleBeamSources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
8.3.1 IonBeamGeneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
8.3.2 LargeAreaSources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
8.4 ApplicationAreasofIonBeams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
8.4.1 PrimaryIonBeamDeposition(PIBD) . . . . . . 205
8.4.2 SecondaryIonBeamDeposition(SIBD) . . . . . 206
8.4.3 IonBeamEtching(IBE,ReactiveRIBE) . . . . . 206
8.5 IonImplantation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
8.5.1 IntroductiontoImplantation. . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
8.5.2 DevicesforIonImplantation . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
8.5.3 PulseImplantation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
8.5.4 IonBeam-AssistedDeposition . . . . . . . . . . . 221
9 ChemicalVaporDeposition(CVD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
byH.Frey
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
9.2 PhysicochemicalBases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
9.2.1 InitiatorMolecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
9.2.2 TransportationPhase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
9.2.3 DepositionandLayerGeneration . . . . . . . . . 239
9.3 EquipmentforCVDProcesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
9.3.1 Batch Reactors with Operating Points Within
theKineticallyControlledRange. . . . . . . . . . 244
9.3.2 ReactorsOperatingWithintheMass-Transport
ControlledRange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
9.4 Plasma-EnhancedChemicalDepositionfromtheGaseous
Phase(PECVD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
9.4.1 DepositionofAmorphousSilicon(a-Si:H) . . . 247
9.5 PhotoinitiatedVaporDeposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
9.5.1 AdvantageousFeaturesofPICVD . . . . . . . . . 251
10 PhysicalBasicsofModernMethodsofSurfaceandThinFilm
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
byH.Frey
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
10.2 IonSpectroscopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
10.2.1 IonBackscattering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
10.2.2 SecondaryIonMassSpectrometry(SIMS). . . . 258
10.2.3 NeutralParticleSpectrometry. . . . . . . . . . . . 262
10.2.4 IPP(Ion-InducedPhotoProduction). . . . . . . . 263
10.2.5 PIXE(Particle-InducedX-RayEmission) . . . . 264
Contents xi
10.3 Electron-SpectroscopicMethods: AugerElectron
Spectroscopy (AES) and X-Ray Photoelectron Spec-
troscopy(XPS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
10.3.1 AugerElectronSpectroscopy(AES). . . . . . . . 267
10.3.2 ESCA (Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical
Analysis),X-RayPhotoElectronSpectroscopy
(XPS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
10.3.3 UPS(UltravioletPhotoelectronSpectroscopy) . 270
10.4 InversePhotoemission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
10.5 ElectronEnergyLossSpectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
10.6 DiffractionofSlowandFastElectrons. . . . . . . . . . . . 273
10.7 ImageMethods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
11 InsituMeasurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
byH.Frey
11.1 DeterminationofFilmThickness
byResistanceMeasurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
11.2 RateMeasurementbyParticleIonizationandExcitation. 280
11.2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
11.3 Film ThicknessandRateofDeposition Measurements
withQuartzCrystalOscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
11.3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
11.4 OpticalMeasuringProcedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
11.4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
11.4.2 Systematics of Optical Measuring of Film
Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
11.4.3 CalculationofOpticalFilmSystems . . . . . . . 290
11.5 DeterminationoftheFilmThicknessbyX-RayEmission
andX-RayFluorescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
11.6 AtomicEmissionSpectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
12 MeasurementsofThinLayersAftertheCoatingProcess . . 301
byH.FreyandT.Helmut
12.1 MeasurementsofThermalConductivity. . . . . . . . . . . 301
12.1.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
12.1.2 ExperimentalDetermination . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
12.2 ElectricalConductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
12.2.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
12.2.2 MethodsofDetermination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
12.3 MagneticProperties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
12.3.1 PropertiesofMagneticLayers . . . . . . . . . . . 302
12.3.2 MagneticAnisotropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
12.3.3 CharacteristicsofMagnetizationReversal . . . . 304
12.3.4 MagneticMeasuringMethods(Overview) . . . . 305
12.3.5 InductiveMethods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
12.3.6 MechanicalMeasuringMethods . . . . . . . . . . 306
12.3.7 OpticalMeasuringMethods . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
12.4 MeasurementofColorCharacteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . 308