Handbook of Optics, Third Edition Volume III: Vision and Vision Optics(set)

854 Pages·2009·9.55 MB·English

by  Michael Bass

HANDBOOK
OF OPTICS
ABOUT THE EDITORS
Editor-in-Chief: Dr. Michael Bass is professor emeritus at CREOL, The College of Optics and
Photonics, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida.
Associate Editors:
Dr. Casimer M. DeCusatis is a distinguished engineer and technical executive with IBM
Corporation.
Dr. Jay M. Enoch is dean emeritus and professor at the School of Optometry at the University
of California, Berkeley.
Dr. Vasudevan Lakshminarayanan is professor of Optometry, Physics, and Electrical Engineering
at the University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.
Dr. Guifang Li is a professor at CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics, University of
Central Florida, Orlando, Florida.
Dr. Carolyn MacDonald is a professor at the University at Albany, and director of the Center
for X-Ray Optics.
Dr. Virendra N. Mahajan is a distinguished scientist at The Aerospace Corporation.
Dr. Eric Van Stryland is a professor at CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics, University
of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida.
HANDBOOK
OF OPTICS
Volume III
Vision and Vision Optics
THIRD EDITION
Sponsored by the
OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA
Michael Bass
Editor-in-Chief
CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics
University of Central Florida,
Orlando, Florida
Jay M. Enoch
Associate Editor
School of Optometry, University of California at Berkeley
Berkeley, California
and
Department of Ophthalmology
University of California at San Francisco
San Francisco, California
Vasudevan Lakshminarayanan
Associate Editor
School of Optometry and Departments of Physics and Electrical Engineering
University of Waterloo
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid
Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul
Singapore Sydney Toronto
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ISBN: 978-0-07-162928-7
MHID: 0-07-162928-9
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COVER ILLUSTRATIONS
A Photograph Taken of a Lady Viewing Her Face Using One of the World’s Oldest Ground
and Polished Mirrors. The oldest known manufactured mirrors (ground and polished), made
of obsidian (volcanic glass) have been found in ancient Anatolia in the ruins of the City of Çatal
Hüyük = “mound at a road-fork.” The locations where the mirrors were discovered were dated
6000 to 5900 B.C.E. by Mellaart and his coworkers. That city is located in the South Konya
Plane of Modern Turkey. Thus, these mirrors are about 8000 years old (B.P.). The obsidian
was transported over a distance of more than one hundred miles to the city for processing.
These mirrors can be found at the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations in Ankara. One cannot
fail to be impressed by the quality of this image seen by refl ectance from this ancient mirror!
These mirrors had been buried twice. There is an extended history of processing of obsidian
at that site for scrapers, spear, and arrow points and other tools. This very early city contained
an estimated 10,000 individuals at that time(!); it was a center for development of modern
agriculture, Indo-European languages, various crafts, etc., and had established road connec-
tions and trade relations [Enoch, J., Optom. Vision Sci.83(10):775–781, 2006]. (This fi gure is
published with permission of Prof. Mellaart, the Director of the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations,
the author, and the editor of the Journal.)
Waveguide Modal Patterns in Vertebrate Eyes (Including Human). This illustration demon-
strates the variety of waveguide modal patterns observed in freshly removed retinas obtained
from normal human, monkey, and rat retinas [Enoch, J., J. Opt. Soc. Am.53(1):71–85, 1963].
These modal patterns have been recorded in paracentral retinal receptors. Reverse path illu-
mination was employed. These modes were photographed in near monochromatic light. This
fi gure provides representative modal patterns observed and recorded near terminations of
these photoreceptor waveguides. With variation of wavelength, at cutoff (please refer to the “V”
parameter), it is possible to witness sharp modal pattern alterations. In this fi gure, the intent
was to show the classes of modal patterns observed in these retinal receptors. (This fi gure is
reproduced with permission of JOSA and the author.)
Photoreceptors in the Human Eye.This fi gure shows the fi rst map ever made of the spatial
arrangement of the three cone classes in the human retina. The three colors (red, green, and
blue) indicate cones that are sensitive to the long, middle, and short wavelength ranges of the
visible spectrum and are classifi ed as L, M, and S cones. The image was recorded from a living
human eye using the adaptive optics ophthalmoscope, which was developed by David Williams’
lab at the University of Rochester [Liang, J., Williams, D. R., and Miller, D. (1997). Supernormal
vision and high-resolution retinal imaging through adaptive optics, J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 14:2884–
2892]. This image was fi rst published in the journal Nature [Roorda, A., and Williams, D. R.
(1999). The arrangement of the three cone classes in the living human eye, Nature397:520–522].
(Courtesy of Austin Roorda and David Williams.)
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CONTENTS
Contributors xiii
Brief Contents of All Volumes xv
Editors’ Preface xxi
Preface to Volume III xxiii
Glossary and Fundamental Constants xxvii
Chapter 1. Optics of the Eye Neil Charman 1.1
1.1 Glossary / 1.1
1.2 Introduction / 1.3
1.3 Ocular Parameters and Ametropia / 1.4
1. 4 Ocular Transmittance and Retinal Illuminance / 1.8
1.5 Factors Affecting In-Focus Retinal Image Quality / 1.12
1.6 Final Retinal Image Quality / 1.21
1.7 Depth-of-Focus and Accommodation / 1.28
1.8 Eye Models / 1.36
1.9 Two Eyes and Stereopsis / 1.38
1.10 Movements of the Eyes / 1.42
1.11 Conclusion / 1.45
1.12 References / 1.45
Chapter 2. Visual Performance Wilson S. Geisler
and Martin S. Banks 2.1
2.1 Glossary / 2.1
2.2 Introduction / 2.2
2.3 Optics, Anatomy, Physiology of the Visual System / 2.2
2.4 Visual Performance / 2.14
2.5 Acknowledgments / 2.41
2.6 References / 2.42
Chapter 3. Psychophysical Methods Denis G. Pelli and Bart Farell 3.1
3.1 Introduction / 3.1
3.2 Defi nitions / 3.2
3.3 Visual Stimuli / 3.3
3.4 Adjustments / 3.4
3.5 Judgments / 3.6
Magnitude Estimation / 3.8
3.6 Stimulus Sequencing / 3.9
3.7 Conclusion / 3.9
3.8 Tips from the Pros / 3.10
3.9 Acknowledgments / 3.10
3.10 References / 3.10
Chapter 4. Visual Acuity and Hyperacuity Gerald Westheimer 4.1
4.1 Glossary / 4.1
4.2 Introduction / 4.2
4.3 Stimulus Specifi cations / 4.2
vii
viii CONTENTS
4.4 Optics of the Eye’s Resolving Capacity / 4.4
4.5 Retinal Limitations—Receptor Mosaic and Tiling of Neuronal Receptive Fields / 4.5
4.6 Determination of Visual Resolution Thresholds / 4.6
4.7 Kinds of Visual Acuity Tests / 4.7
4.8 Factors Affecting Visual Acuity / 4.9
4.9 Hyperacuity / 4.14
4.10 Resolution, Superresolution, and Information Theory / 4.15
4.11 Summary / 4.16
4.12 References / 4.16
Chapter 5. Optical Generation of the Visual
Stimulus Stephen A. Burns and Robert H. Webb 5.1
5.1 Glossary / 5.1
5.2 Introduction / 5.1
5.3 The Size of the Visual Stimulus / 5.2
5.4 Free or Newtonian Viewing / 5.2
5.5 Maxwellian Viewing / 5.4
5.6 Building an Optical System / 5.8
5.7 Light Exposure and Ocular Safety / 5.18
5.8 Light Sources / 5.19
5.9 Coherent Radiation / 5.19
5.10 Detectors / 5.21
5.11 Putting It Together / 5.21
5.12 Conclusions / 5.24
5.13 Acknowledgments / 5.24
5.14 General References / 5.25
5.15 References / 5.26
Chapter 6. The Maxwellian View: with an Addendum
on Apodization Gerald Westheimer 6.1
6.1 Glossary / 6.1
6.2 Introduction / 6.2
6.3 Postscript (2008) / 6.13
Chapter 7. Ocular Radiation Hazards David H. Sliney 7.1
7.1 Glossary / 7.1
7.2 Introduction / 7.2
7.3 Injury Mechanisms / 7.2
7.4 Types of Injury / 7.3
7.5 Retinal Irradiance Calculations / 7.7
7.6 Examples / 7.8
7.7 Exposure Limits / 7.9
7.8 Discussion / 7.11
7.9 References / 7.15
Chapter 8. Biological Waveguides
Vasudevan Lakshminarayanan and Jay M. Enoch 8.1
8.1 Glossary / 8.1
8.2 Introduction / 8.2
8.3 Waveguiding in Retinal Photoreceptors and the Stiles-Crawford Effect / 8.3
8.4 Waveguides and Photoreceptors / 8.3
8.5 Photoreceptor Orientation and Alignment / 8.5
8.6 Introduction to the Models and Theoretical Implications / 8.8
8.7 Quantitative Observations of Single Receptors / 8.15
8.8 Waveguide Modal Patterns Found in Monkey/Human Retinal Receptors / 8.19
8.9 Light Guide Effect in Cochlear Hair Cells and Human Hair / 8.24
CONTENTS ix
8.10 Fiber-Optic Plant Tissues / 8.26
8.11 Sponges / 8.28
8.12 Summary / 8.29
8.13 References / 8.29
Chapter 9. The Problem of Correction for the Stiles-Crawford
Effect of the First Kind in Radiometry and
Photometry, a Solution Jay M. Enoch and
Vasudevan Lakshminarayanan 9.1
9.1 Glossary / 9.1
9.2 Introduction / 9.2
9.3 The Problem and an Approach to Its Solution / 9.3
9.4 Sample Point-by-Point Estimates of SCE-1 and Integrated SCE-1 Data / 9.6
9.5 Discussion / 9.13
9.6 Teleological and Developmental Factors / 9.14
9.7 Conclusions / 9.14
9.8 References / 9.15
Chapter 10. Colorimetry David H. Brainard and Andrew Stockman 10.1
10.1 Glossary / 10.1
10.2 Introduction / 10.2
10.3 Fundamentals of Colorimetry / 10.3
10.4 Color Coordinate Systems / 10.11
10.5 Matrix Representations and Calculations / 10.24
10.6 Topics / 10.32
10.7 Appendix—Matrix Algebra / 10.45
10.8 References / 10.49
Chapter 11. Color Vision Mechanisms Andrew Stockman and
David H. Brainard 11.1
11.1 Glossary / 11.1
11.2 Introduction / 11.3
11.3 Basics of Color-Discrimination Mechanisms / 11.9
11.4 Basics of Color-Appearance Mechanisms / 11.26
11.5 Details and Limits of the Basic Model / 11.31
11.6 Conclusions / 11.79
11.7 Acknowledgments / 11.85
11.8 References / 11.86
Chapter 12. Assessment of Refraction and Refractive
Errors and Their Infl uence on Optical
Design B. Ralph Chou 12.1
12.1 Glossary / 12.1
12.2 Introduction / 12.3
12.3 Refractive Errors / 12.3
12.4 Assessment of Refractive Error / 12.5
12.5 Correction of Refractive Error / 12.8
12.6 Binocular Factors / 12.15
12.7 Consequences for Optical Design / 12.17
12.8 References / 12.17
Chapter 13. Binocular Vision Factors That Infl uence
Optical Design Clifton Schor 13.1
13.1 Glossary / 13.1
13.2 Combining the Images in the Two Eyes into One Perception of the Visual Field / 13.3
13.3 Distortion of Space by Monocular Magnifi cation / 13.13