Handbook of Oil Spill Science and Technology

724 Pages·2015·34.81 MB·English

by  Merv Fingas

Handbook of oil Spill Science and TecHnology

Handbook of oil Spill
Science and TecHnology
edited by
Merv fingaS
Spill Science, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
Copyright © 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey
Published simultaneously in Canada
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Handbook of oil spill science and technology / edited by Merv Fingas.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-470-45551-7 (hardback)
1. Oil spills–Prevention–Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Oil spills–Cleanup–Handbooks, manuals, etc.
3. Oil spills–Management–Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Fingas, Mervin, editor.
TD427.P4H366 2015
628.1′6833–dc23
2014022293
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ContEnts
Contributors xvii
Author biogrAphiEs xix
prEfACE xxvii
pArt i risk AnAlysis 1
1 risk Analysis and prevention 3
Dagmar Schmidt Etkin
1.1 Introduction, 3
1.2 Executive Summary, 3
1.3 Oil Spill Risk Analysis, 4
1.3.1 Defining “Oil Spill Risk”, 4
1.3.2 Factors That Determine the Probability of Spill Occurrence, 5
1.3.3 Probability Distributions of Spill Volume, 9
1.3.4 Determining the Probable Locations and Timing of Spills, 11
1.3.5 Factors That Determine the Consequences/Impacts of a Spill, 11
1.3.6 Spill Impacts: The Effects of Spill Location Type, 16
1.3.7 Measuring Oil Spill Impacts, 18
1.3.8 Interpreting Risk for Policy-Making, 27
1.4 Overview of Oil Spill Prevention, 28
1.4.1 Basic Strategies for Spill Prevention, 28
1.4.2 Implementation of Spill Prevention Measures, 29
1.4.3 Effectiveness of Spill Prevention, 29
1.4.4 Spill Fines and Penalties as Deterrents, 31
References, 34
pArt ii oil propErtiEs 37
2 oil physical properties: Measurement and Correlation 39
Bruce P. Hollebone
2.1 Introduction, 39
2.2 Bulk Properties of Crude Oil and Fuel Products, 39
vi COnTEnTS
2.2.1 Density and API Gravity, 40
2.2.2 Dynamic Viscosity, 41
2.2.3 Surface and Interfacial Tensions, 41
2.2.4 Flash Point, 42
2.2.5 Pour Point, 42
2.2.6 Sulfur Content, 42
2.2.7 Water Content, 42
2.2.8 Evaluation of the Stability of Emulsions Formed from Brine and Oils
and Oil Products, 43
2.2.9 Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Dispersants on an Oil, 43
2.2.10 Adhesion, 44
2.3 Hydrocarbon Groups, 44
2.3.1 Saturates, 44
2.3.2 Aromatics, 44
2.3.3 Resins, 44
2.3.4 Asphaltenes, 44
2.4 Quality Assurance and Control, 46
2.5 Effects of Evaporative Weathering on Oil Bulk Properties, 46
2.5.1 Weathering, 46
2.5.2 Preparing Evaporated (Weathered) Samples of Oils, 47
2.5.3 Quantifying Equation(s) for Predicting Evaporation, 47
References, 49
pArt iii oil CoMposition And propErtiEs 51
3 introduction to oil Chemistry and properties 53
Merv Fingas
3.1 Introduction, 53
3.2 The Composition of Oil, 53
3.2.1 SARA, 54
3.2.2 Sulfur Compounds, 58
3.2.3 Oxygen Compounds, 58
3.2.4 nitrogen Compounds, 69
3.2.5 Metals, 69
3.2.6 Resins, 69
3.2.7 Asphaltenes, 69
3.3 Properties of Oil, 75
References, 76
4 Vegetable oil spills: oil properties and behavior 79
Merv Fingas
4.1 Introduction, 79
4.2 The Oils, 79
4.3 Historical Spills, 79
4.4 Aquatic Toxicity, 86
4.5 Properties of the Oils, 86
4.6 Behavior in the Environment, 87
4.7 Oxidation, Biodegradation, and Polymerization, 87
4.8 Spill Countermeasures, 88
4.9 Biofuels, 88
4.10 Conclusions, 89
References, 89
COnTEnTS vii
pArt iV oil AnAlysis 93
5 Chromatographic fingerprinting Analysis of Crude oils
and petroleum products 95
Chun Yang, Zhendi Wang, Bruce P. Hollebone, Carl E. Brown,
Zeyu Yang, and Mike Landriault
5.1 Introduction, 95
5.1.1 Crude Oils and Refined Petroleum Products, 96
5.1.2 Chemical Components of Petroleum, 97
5.2 Introduction to Oil Analysis Techniques, 100
5.2.1 GC, 100
5.2.2 GC with Mass Spectrometry, 103
5.2.3 Ancillary Oil Fingerprinting Techniques, 104
5.3 Methodology of Oil Fingerprinting Analysis, 105
5.3.1 Oil Sample Preparation and Separation, 105
5.3.2 Identification and Quantitation of Target Petroleum
Hydrocarbons, 110
5.3.3 Oil Type Screening by GC–FID, 113
5.3.4 Aliphatic Hydrocarbons in Petroleum, 117
5.3.5 Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Petroleum, 130
5.4 Weathering Effect on Oil Chemical Composition, 141
5.4.1 Evaporation Weathering, 141
5.4.2 Biodegradation Weathering, 141
5.4.3 Photodegradation Weathering, 146
5.4.4 Assessment of Mass Loss during Weathering, 147
5.5 Diagnostic Ratios of Target Hydrocarbons, 148
5.5.1 Molecular Diagnostic Ratios for Oil Identification, 148
5.5.2 Selection of Diagnostic Ratios, 150
5.6 Forensic Oil Spill Identification: A Case Study, 151
5.6.1 Product Type Screening and Determination of
Hydrocarbon Groups, 152
5.6.2 Determination of Oil-Characteristic Alkylated PAHs
and Biomarkers, 154
5.6.3 Comparison of Diagnostic Ratios, 157
5.6.4 Weathering Check, 157
5.6.5 Results of Match between Spilled Oils and Candidate
Sources, 157
References, 158
6 oil spill identification 165
Joan Albaigés, Paul G.M. Kienhuis, and Gerhard Dahlmann
6.1 Introduction, 165
6.2 Sampling, 167
6.2.1 Thick Oil Layers and Tar Balls, 167
6.2.2 Sampling of Thin Oil Films (Sheens or Slicks), 167
6.2.3 Taking Oil Samples on Beaches and from Oiled Animals, 169
6.2.4 Sampling on Board Vessels, 170
6.3 Sample Handling in the Laboratory, 170
6.4 Analysis, 171
6.4.1 Characterization by GC–FID: Level 1, 172
6.4.2 Characterization by GC–MS: Level 2, 176
6.5 Conclusions, 198
References, 202
viii COnTEnTS
pArt V oil bEhAVior 205
7 oil and petroleum Evaporation 207
Merv Fingas
7.1 Introduction, 207
7.2 Review of Historical Concepts, 209
7.3 Development of new Diffusion-Regulated Models, 213
7.3.1 Wind Experiments, 213
7.3.2 Variation with Area, 214
7.3.3 Variation with Mass, 215
7.3.4 Evaporation of Pure Hydrocarbons, 215
7.3.5 Saturation Concentration, 216
7.3.6 Development of Generic Equations Using Distillation Data, 216
7.4 Complexities to the Diffusion-Regulated Model, 218
7.4.1 Oil Thickness, 218
7.4.2 The Bottle Effect, 219
7.4.3 Skinning, 220
7.4.4 Jumps from the 0-Wind Values, 220
7.5 Use of Evaporation Equations in Spill Models, 220
7.6 Volatilization, 221
7.7 Measurement of Evaporation, 221
7.8 Summary, 221
References, 222
8 Water-in-oil Emulsions: formation and prediction 225
Merv Fingas and Ben Fieldhouse
8.1 Introduction, 225
8.2 Types of Emulsions, 225
8.3 Stability Indices, 226
8.4 Formation of Emulsions, 230
8.4.1 The Role of Asphaltenes, 230
8.4.2 The Role of Resins and Other Components, 231
8.4.3 Methods to Study Emulsions, 232
8.4.4 The Overall Theory of Emulsion Formation, 233
8.4.5 The Role of Weathering, 235
8.5 Modeling the Formation of Water-in-Oil Emulsions, 235
8.5.1 Older Models, 235
8.5.2 new Models, 236
8.5.3 Development of an Emulsion Kinetics Estimator, 250
8.5.4 Model Certainty, 250
8.6 Conclusions, 251
References, 268
9 oil behavior in ice-infested Waters 271
Merv Fingas and Bruce P. Hollebone
9.1 Introduction, 271
9.2 Spreading on Ice, 271
9.3 Spreading on or in Snow, 273
9.4 Spreading under Ice, 273
9.4.1 Water Stripping Velocity under Ice, 274
9.5 Spreading on Water with Ice Present, 274
9.6 The Effect of Gas on Oil-under-Ice Spreading, 275
9.7 Movement through Ice, 276