Handbook of nanocellulose and cellulose nanocomposites. Volume 1

918 Pages·2017·22.598 MB·English

HandbookofNanocelluloseandCelluloseNanocomposites
Handbook of Nanocellulose and Cellulose
Nanocomposites
Editedby
HaniehKargarzadeh,IshakAhmad,SabuThomas,and
AlainDufresne
Volume1
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v
ContentstoVolume1
ListofContributors xv
Foreword1 xxiii
Foreword2 xxv
Foreword3 xxvii
Preface xxix
1 MethodsforExtractionofNanocellulosefromVarious
Sources 1
HaniehKargarzadeh,MichaelIoelovich,IshakAhmad,SabuThomas,and
AlainDufresne
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 HierarchicalStructureofNaturalFibers 3
1.3 CelluloseFibers:StructureandChemistry 5
1.4 MainCelluloseSources 7
1.4.1 Plants 8
1.4.2 Tunicates 8
1.4.3 Algae 8
1.4.4 Bacteria 8
1.5 ClassificationofNanocelluloseStructures 9
1.5.1 MicrocrystallineCellulose 9
1.5.2 CelluloseMicrofibrils 11
1.5.3 CelluloseNanofibrils 11
1.5.4 CelluloseNanocrystals 11
1.5.5 AmorphousNanocellulose 13
1.5.6 CelluloseNanoyarn 13
1.6 PreparationTechniquesofVariousTypesofNanocellulose 13
1.6.1 PreparationofCNF/CMF 13
1.6.1.1 High-PressureHomogenization 13
1.6.1.2 Microfluidization 14
1.6.1.3 Grinding 15
1.6.1.4 Cryocrushing 17
1.6.1.5 High-IntensityUltrasonication 17
1.6.2 CNCPreparation 18
1.6.2.1 AcidHydrolysis 18
vi Contents
1.6.2.2 HydrolysiswithSolidAcids 22
1.6.2.3 HydrolysiswithGaseousAcids 22
1.6.2.4 HydrolysiswithMetalSaltCatalyst 23
1.6.2.5 OtherPreparationTechniques 23
1.6.3 PreparationofNanoparticlesofAmorphousCellulose 24
1.6.4 PreparationofCelluloseNanoyarn 25
1.7 Pretreatment 27
1.7.1 PulpingProcesses 27
1.7.2 Bleaching 28
1.7.3 Alkaline-Acid-AlkalinePretreatment 28
1.7.4 EnzymaticPretreatment 28
1.7.5 IonicLiquids 29
1.7.6 Oxidation 30
1.7.7 SteamExplosion 32
1.7.8 OtherPretreatments 33
1.8 ConcludingRemarks 34
References 35
2 CharacterizationofVariousKindsofNanocellulose 51
MichaelIoelovich
2.1 Introduction 52
2.2 MethodsofInvestigations 57
2.2.1 X-RayScattering 57
2.2.1.1 EvaluationoftheAllomorphTypebyDeterminingPositionsofthe
MainDiffractionPeaks 58
2.2.1.2 CalculationofInterplanarDistances(d)inCrystallineLatticeby
MeansofBragg’sEquation 58
2.2.1.3 CalculationofParametersofCrystallineUnitCell 58
2.2.1.4 CalculationofLateralSizesofNanocrystallites 59
2.2.1.5 CalculationofCrystallinity 61
2.2.2 CP/MAS13CNMR 65
2.2.3 ElectronMicroscopy 67
2.2.4 AtomicForceMicroscopy 69
2.2.5 LaserLightScattering 69
2.2.6 InfraredandRamanSpectroscopy 70
2.2.7 ThermoanalyticalMethods 71
2.2.8 PhysicomechanicalProperties 72
2.2.8.1 PhysicalTesting 72
2.2.8.2 MechanicalTesting 72
2.2.9 PhysicochemicalMethods 73
2.2.9.1 Sorption 73
2.2.9.2 Calorimetry 74
2.2.9.3 High-PerformanceLiquidChromatography(HPLC) 75
2.2.9.4 GasChromatography(GC) 75
2.2.9.5 ViscometryMethods 76
2.2.9.6 ZetaPotential 76
2.2.10 ChemicalandBiochemicalMethods 77
Contents vii
2.2.10.1 ChemicalMethods 77
2.2.10.2 BiochemicalMethods 77
2.3 CharacterizationofVariousKindsofNanocellulose 78
2.3.1 CharacterizationofCelluloseNanocrystals 78
2.3.2 CharacterizationofFibrousNanocellulose 86
2.4 ConcludingRemark 89
References 91
3 SurfaceModificationofNanocellulose 101
JannahB.DaudandKoon-YangLee
3.1 Introduction 102
3.2 EsterificationofNanocellulose 103
3.2.1 AcetylationofNanocellulosewithAceticAnhydride 103
3.2.2 EsterificationofNanocellulosewithCarboxylicAcid 104
3.2.3 Gas-PhaseEsterificationofNanocellulose 105
3.3 SilylationofNanocellulose 107
3.4 GraftingofPolymersontoNanocellulose 110
3.5 Cross-linkingofNanocellulosewithGlyoxal 110
3.6 NanocellulosewithSurface-SulfonatedFunctionalities 113
3.7 Conclusions 116
Acknowledgment 117
References 117
4 Self-AssemblyofNativeCelluloseNanostructures 123
LokanathanR.Arcot,AndréH.Gröschel,MarkusB.Linder,OrlandoJ.Rojas,
andOlliIkkala
4.1 Introduction 124
4.2 CelluloseNanocrystalAssembliesandImplications 125
4.3 Layer-by-LayerAssemblyofNanocelluloses 131
4.4 NanocelluloseHydrogelsandSupracolloidalInteractions 134
4.5 Self-AssembledNanocompositesBasedonNanocelluloses 139
4.6 NanocelluloseAerogels 147
4.7 FibersBasedonNanocelluloses 151
4.8 Conclusion 153
References 154
5 ThermoplasticCelluloseNanocomposites 175
SamanehKarimi
5.1 Introduction 177
5.2 CellulosicNanostructures 178
5.3 OverviewofThermoplasticCelluloseCompositesand
Nanocomposites 179
5.4 ProcessingTechniques 180
5.4.1 Casting/Evaporation 182
5.4.1.1 ProcessingfromAqueousMedium 182
5.4.1.2 ProcessingfromNon-aqueousLiquidMedium 183
5.4.2 Electrospinning 186
viii Contents
5.4.3 Layer-by-LayerAssembly 186
5.4.4 MeltProcessing 187
5.5 PerformanceInfluencingFactors 187
5.5.1 FiberDispersion 187
5.5.2 Fiber-MatrixAdhesion 188
5.5.3 FiberAspectRatio 188
5.5.4 FiberOrientation 189
5.5.5 FiberVolumeFraction 190
5.6 CharacterizationofThermoplasticCelluloseNanocomposites 190
5.6.1 MorphologicalProperties 190
5.6.2 MechanicalProperties 192
5.6.3 ThermalProperties 193
5.6.4 OpticalTransparency 195
5.7 PotentialApplications 196
5.8 ConcludingRemarks 197
Acknowledgments 200
References 200
6 ElastomericNanocompositesReinforcedwithNanocellulose
andNanochitin 217
AjiP.Mathew
6.1 Introduction 218
6.2 MatrixPolymers 219
6.2.1 NaturalRubber-BasedBionanocomposites 219
6.2.2 SyntheticRubber-BasedBionanocomposites 220
6.2.3 Cross-LinkedRubber-BasedNanocomposites 221
6.3 ProcessingTechniques 222
6.3.1 LatexMixing 222
6.3.2 SolutionCasting 223
6.3.3 TwoRollMillMixing 223
6.4 Properties 225
6.4.1 Morphology 225
6.4.2 SolventInteraction 225
6.4.3 MechanicalProperties 226
6.5 Applications 227
6.6 ConcludingRemarks 228
Acknowledgments 229
References 229
7 ThermosetCelluloseNanocomposites:Flammability
Characteristics 235
MfisoE.MngomezuluandMayaJ.John
7.1 Introduction 237
7.2 FireRetardancy 238
7.3 ThermosettingPolymers 239
7.4 CelluloseandItsNanocellulose 242
Contents ix
7.5 ThermosetCelluloseNanocomposites 250
7.6 StrategiestoImpartFlammabilityinThermosets 254
7.6.1 IntumescentCoatings 254
7.6.2 Nanoparticles 256
7.6.3 SurfaceTreatment 256
7.6.4 ImpregnationwithaSolution 257
7.7 FlammabilityCharacterization 258
7.7.1 LimitingOxygenIndex(LOI) 258
7.7.2 Underwriters’Laboratories(UL-94)Test 259
7.7.3 ConeCalorimetry 260
7.7.4 PyrolysisCombustionFlowCalorimetry(PCFC) 261
7.8 Applications 262
7.8.1 ThermosetFiberCompositeMaterials 262
7.8.2 CelluloseandItsNanomaterials 263
7.9 ConcludingRemarks 263
References 264
8 HybridFiller(Cellulose/Noncellulose)Reinforced
Nanocomposites 273
MartinA.Hubbe
8.1 Introduction 274
8.1.1 SettingtheChallengeforHybridComposites 275
8.1.2 HierarchicalStructureinHybridNanocomposites 276
8.2 AttributesContributedbytheMineral-BasedReinforcement 276
8.2.1 WaterUptakeReduction 277
8.2.2 FireResistance 278
8.2.3 ThermalStabilityandResistancetoHeatDistortion 279
8.2.4 ThermalConductivity 279
8.2.5 GasBarrier 280
8.2.6 ForcetoFailure 280
8.2.7 ModulusofElasticity 281
8.2.8 Toughness 282
8.2.9 Compatibility 282
8.2.10 IntercalationEffects 283
8.3 AttributesContributedbytheCellulosicReinforcement 284
8.3.1 LowDensity 285
8.3.2 FiberAgglomeration 285
8.3.3 Compatibility 285
8.3.4 EffectsoftheCellulosicComponentonCompositeStrength 286
8.4 ProcessinginPreparationofHybridComposites 286
8.4.1 Thermoplastics 287
8.4.2 ThermosetorCuringResinsasMatrix 287
8.4.3 SolubleMatrixMaterials 287
8.4.4 CelluloseastheMatrix 288
8.4.5 PrescribedAlignmentofReinforcingFibers 288
8.4.6 Layering 288
8.4.7 WovenFabricastheCellulosicReinforcement 289
x Contents
8.5 PracticalConsiderations 289
8.5.1 Cost 289
8.5.2 Safety 289
8.5.3 FormulationandPracticalDesignConsiderations 289
8.5.4 Eco-FriendlyCharacter 290
8.6 SummingItUp 290
8.6.1 RuleofMixtures 290
8.6.2 EvidenceofSynergism 291
8.6.3 LoadDistribution 292
8.6.4 Linkages 292
8.6.5 IsTherea“NanoEffect”forHybridComposites? 293
References 293
9 FullyGreenCelluloseNanocomposites 301
JinHuang,PeterR.Chang,YaoyaoChen,ShanjunGao,andJingluLiao
9.1 Introduction 302
9.2 BionanocompositeBasedonCNF 305
9.2.1 Biomass-BasedPolyesterMatrix 305
9.2.2 NaturalPolymerMatrices 307
9.3 BionanocompositeBasedonCNC 309
9.3.1 Biomass-BasedPolyesterMatrices 309
9.3.2 NaturalPolymersMatrices 314
9.4 RoleofCNFandCNCinBionanocomposites 317
9.4.1 DistributionofCNFandCNCinMatrix 317
9.4.2 EffectsofCNFandCNConProperties 319
9.4.3 EffectsofCNFandCNConMicrostructure 325
9.5 ConcludingRemarksandProspects 326
Acknowledgments 327
References 327
10 CouplingAgentUsageinthePreparationofCellulose
Nanofibril(CNF)-andCelluloseNanocrystal(CNC)-Based
Nanocomposites 335
AnaFerrerCarrera
10.1 Introduction 337
10.2 ApplicationofCouplingAgentsinCelluloseNanocomposites 340
10.2.1 GeneralOverview 340
10.2.2 TypesandClassification 340
10.3 CouplingReactionMechanisms 344
10.3.1 PretreatmentoftheCellulosewithCouplingAgent 345
10.3.1.1 CoatingTreatment 345
10.3.1.2 GraftCopolymerization 346
10.3.2 PretreatmentofthePolymericMatrixwithCouplingAgent 347
10.3.2.1 Maleation 347
10.3.2.2 MethacrylateGraftCopolymerization 347
10.3.3 UnifiedMixingandTreatmentwithCouplingAgent:Useof
AdditivesorInitiators 347
10.4 EvaluationofEffectivelyCouplingReactions 350
Contents xi
10.4.1 EvaluationofMechanicalProperties 350
10.4.2 EvaluationofThermalProperties 352
10.4.3 EvaluationofBarrierProperties 354
10.4.4 EvaluationofMorphologicalProperties 355
10.4.5 EvaluationofPhysicalProperties 355
10.5 Conclusions 357
Acknowledgments 358
References 358
11 MicroscopicAnalysisofCelluloseNanofibril(CNF)-and
CelluloseNanocrystal(CNC)-BasedNanocomposites 365
IngridC.Hoeger
11.1 Introduction 366
11.2 MicroscopicTechniquesforNanocelluloseAnalysis 366
11.2.1 OpticalMicroscopy 366
11.2.2 ElectronMicroscopy 370
11.2.3 AtomicForceMicroscopy 377
11.3 StrategiesfortheImagingofNanoreinforcementsinthe
Nanocomposites 378
11.3.1 NanocelluloseLabeling 378
11.3.2 NanocompositeFracture 384
11.4 Conclusion 389
References 390
12 MechanicalPropertiesofCelluloseNanofibril(CNF)-and
CelluloseNanocrystal(CNC)-BasedNanocomposites 393
Hou-YongYuandChen-FengYan
12.1 Introduction 395
12.2 EffectofMorphologyandDimensionsofCNFandCNConthe
MechanicalPropertiesoftheNanocomposites 396
12.3 EffectofProcessingTechnologyontheMechanicalPropertiesofthe
Nanocomposites 401
12.3.1 SolutionBlendingMethod 401
12.3.2 ThermoprocessingMethod 409
12.3.3 ElectrospinningTechnology 413
12.3.4 OtherMethods 416
12.4 EffectofInterfacialInteractionsontheStructureandMechanical
PropertiesoftheNanocomposites 418
12.4.1 HydrogenBonding 418
12.4.2 PercolatedNetwork 420
12.4.3 Cross-Linking 422
12.4.4 ChainEntanglement 423
12.4.5 NanocompositesReinforcedwithModifiedCNFandCNC 424
12.5 EffectofMechanicalTestMethodsontheMechanicalPropertiesof
theNanocomposites 427
12.5.1 CompressiveTesting 428