Handbook of material weathering

822 Pages·2012·32.082 MB·English

by  Wypych, George

Handbook of
Material
Weathering
4th Edition
George Wypych

Toronto 2008
Published by ChemTec Publishing
38 Earswick Drive, Toronto, Ontario M1E 1C6, Canada
© ChemTec Publishing, 2008, 2012
ISBN 978-1-895198-53-9
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be repro-
duced, stored or transmitted in any form or by any means without
written permission of copyright owner. No responsibility is
assumed by the Author and the Publisher for any injury or/and
damage to persons or properties as a matter of products liability,
negligence, use, or operation of any methods, product ideas, or
instructions published or suggested in this book.
Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Wypych, George
Handbook of material weathering [electronic resource] / George
Wypych. -- 4th ed.

Includes bibliographical references and index.
Electronic monograph issued in EPUB format.
ISBN 978-1-895198-53-9

1. Materials--Deterioration--Handbooks, manuals, etc.
2. Materials--Biodeterioration--Handbooks, manuals, etc.
3. Polymers--Deterioration. 4. Polymers--Biodegradation.
5. Environmental testing. I. Title.
Table of Contents
1 PHOTOPHYSICS 1
1.1 Nature of radiation 1
1.1.1 Radiative energy 1
1.1.2 Radiation intensity 4
1.1.3 Radiation incidence 5
1.2 Absorption of radiation by materials 6
1.2.1 General principles 7
1.3 Fate and utilization of absorbed energy 11
1.3.1 Deactivation 12
1.3.2 Intramolecular energy transfer 14
1.3.3 Intermolecular energy transfer 15
1.3.4 Luminescence 16
1.4 Radiative processes involving dimers 21
1.5 Photodegradable modeling and photophysical data 23
References 25
2 PHOTOCHEMISTRY 27
2.1 Typical routes of photochemical reactions 27
2.1.1 Photodissociation 28
2.1.2 Photooxidation 30
2.1.3 Peroxide and hydroperoxide conversions 32
2.1.4 Norrish type I and II reactions 33
2.1.5 Photo-Fries rearrangement 35
2.1.6 Photosubstitution 35
2.1.7 Photoaddition 36
2.1.8 Photoelimination 37
2.1.9 Photodimerization 37
2.1.10 Photocondensation 38
2.1.11 Photoisomerization 38
2.2 Photochemical reactivity and quantum yield 39
2.3 Excitation of excited state 41
2.4 Parameters of photochemical reactions 42
2.6 Quenchers and photosensitizers 44
References 45
3 PARAMETERS OF EXPOSURE 47
3.1 Radiation 48
3.1.1 The source 48
3.1.2 Solar radiative emission 51
3.1.3 Effect of orbital variations on energy supply 52
3.1.4 Interplanetary and near Earth space 53
3.1.5 Stratosphere 54
iv Table of Contents
3.1.6 Troposphere 57
3.2 Temperature 59
3.3 Water 61
3.4 Atmosphere composition 62
3.5 Pollutants 64
3.5.1 Nitrogen compounds 64
3.5.2 Oxygen species 66
3.5.3 Hydrogen species 67
3.5.4 Carbon oxides 69
3.5.5 Sulfur-containing components 70
3.5.6 Chlorine-containing components 72
3.5.7 Particulate materials 72
3.6 Stress 73
3.7 Cooperative action of different parameters 75
References 82
4 MEASUREMENTS IN ASSESSMENT OF WEATHERING
CONDITIONS 83
4.1 Radiation 83
4.1.1 Measuring equipment and methods of measurement 83
4.1.2 Standards 89
4.2 Sunshine duration 89
4.3 Temperature 90
4.4 Relative humidity 91
4.5 Time of wetness 92
4.5 Rain 92
4.6 Pollutants 92
4.6.1 Carbon dioxide 93
4.6.2 Particulate matter 93
4.6.3 Sulfur dioxide 93
4.6.4 Nitrogen oxides 93
4.6.5 Carbon monoxide 93
4.6.6 Ozone 93
References 94
5 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS 95
5.1 Introduction 95
5.2 Radiation 97
5.3 Sunshine duration 105
5.4 Temperature 106
5.5 Precipitation 106
5.6 Relative humidity 107
5.7 Wetness time 107
5.8 Pollutants 108
References 109
6 METHODS OF OUTDOOR EXPOSURE 111
6.1 Introduction 111
Handbook of Material Weathering v
6.2 Climatic conditions and degradation rate 112
6.3 Variability of weather conditions and its impact on the strategy
in outdoor exposures 114
6.4 Effect of specimen properties on energy received by the sample
and combination ofstress factors 115
6.5 Typical methods of outdoor exposure, their effect on combination of
stress factors, and typical applications to different types of samples 118
6.5.1 Exposure sites 119
6.5.2 Exposure racks 123
6.5.2.1 Standard rack 123
6.5.2.2 Under glass exposure 127
6.5.2.3 Black box exposure 127
6.5.2.4 Exposure with spray 129
6.5.2.5 Dry exposure 129
6.5.2.6 Sun-tracking devices 129
6.5.2.7 Light concentrating devices 129
6.5.3 Exposure of products and components 130
6.6 Other parameters of exposure 132
6.7 Relevant standards 133
References 134
7 LABORATORY DEGRADATION STUDIES 137
7.1 Introduction 137
7.2 Light sources 138
7.3 Filters 147
7.4 Radiation: delivery, monitoring and control 148
7.5 Temperature control 150
7.6 Humidity control 151
7.7 Specimen spraying 152
7.8 Specimen racks and holders 152
7.9 Weathering equipment 153
7.10 Correlation between different devices 157
7.11 Pollutants 160
7.12 Precision of studies 161
References 162
8 WEATHERING CYCLES 165
References 173
9 SAMPLE PREPARATION 177
References 190
10 WEATHERING DATA INTERPRETATION. LIFETIME
PREDICTION 193
References 201
11 ARTIFICIAL WEATHERING VERSUS NATURAL EXPOSURE 203
References 214
12 EFFECT OF WEATHERING ON MATERIAL PROPERTIES 217
12.1 Mass loss 217
vi Table of Contents
12.2 Depth of degradation 218
12.3 Mechanical properties 221
12.4 Changes of color and optical properties 223
12.5 Surface changes 224
12.6 Molecular weight 226
12.7 Chemical composition of surface and bulk 228
12.8 Morphology and structure of surface layers 231
References 240
13 TESTING METHODS OF WEATHERED SPECIMEN 243
13.1 Visual evaluation 243
13.2 Microscopy 244
13.3 Imaging techniques 246
13.4 Gloss 249
13.5 Color changes 250
13.6 Visible spectrophotometry 252
13.7 UV spectrophotometry 253
13.8 Infrared spectrophotometry 254
13.9 Raman spectroscopy 260
13.10 Nuclear magnetic resonance 260
13.11 Electron spin resonance 262
13.12 Mass spectrometry 265
13.13 Chemiluminescence, fluorescence, and phosphorescence 266
13.14 Atomic absorption spectroscopy 268
13.15 WAXS and SAXS 268
13.16 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy 270
13.17 Mass change 273
13.18 Density 274
13.19 Contact angle 274
13.20 Diffusion of gases and water transport in polymers 275
13.21 Electrical properties 277
13.22 Ultrasonic measurements 277
13.23 Thermal methods 277
13.24 Rheological properties of materials 279
13.25 Other physical parameters 280
13.26 Tensile strength 280
13.27 Elongation 282
13.28 Flexural strength 284
13.29 Creep and constant strain tests 284
13.30 Residual stress 284
13.31 Scratch and mar resistance 285
13.32 Other mechanical properties 285
13.33 Molecular weight 287
13.34 Gas and liquid chromatography 289
13.35 Titrimetry 290
13.36 Dehydrochlorination rate 291
Handbook of Material Weathering vii
13.37 Gel fraction 292
13.38 Oxygen uptake 292
13.39 Microorganism growth test 293
13.40 Environmental stress cracking resistance 293
References 294
14 DATA ON SPECIFIC POLYMERS 305
14.1 Acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylate, ASA 305
14.2 Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene, ABS 307
14.3 Alkyd resins 311
14.4 Acrylic resins 312
14.5 Cellulose 316
14.6 Chitosan 319
14.7 Epoxy resins 319
14.8 Ethylene-propylene copolymer, EPR 326
14.9 Ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer, EVA 328
14.10 Ethylene propylene diene monomer, EPDM 329
14.11 Fluoropolymers 330
14.12 Melamine resins 331
14.13 Phenoxy resins 332
14.14 Polyacrylonitrile 335
14.15 Polyamides 336
14.16 Polycarbonates 342
14.17 Polyesters 348
14.18 Polyethylene 355
14.19 Polyimides 365
14.20 Polymethylmethacrylate 369
14.21 Polyoxyethylene 372
14.22 Polyoxymethylene 372
14.23 Poly(phenylene oxide) 375
14.24 Poly(phenylene sulfide) 379
14.25 Poly(p-phenylene terephthalamide) 381
14.26 Polypropylene 382
14.27 Polystyrenes 392
14.28 Polysulfones 403
14.29 Polytetrafluoroethylene 407
14.30 Polyurethanes 409
14.31 Poly(vinyl alcohol) 418
14.32 Polyvinylchloride 421
14.33 Poly(vinylidene fluoride) 431
14.34 Poly(vinyl methyl ether) 432
14.35 Styrene-acrylonitrile copolymer 433
14.36 Silicones 435
14.37 Polymer blends 438
14.38 Rubbers 444
14.38.1 Polybutadiene 444
viii Table of Contents
14.38.2 Polychloroprene 446
14.38.3 Polyisoprene 447
14.38.4 Polyisobutylene 448
14.38.5 Styrene-butadiene-styrene rubber 449
References 451
15 EFFECT OF ADDITIVES ON WEATHERING 471
15.1 Fillers and reinforcing fibers 471
15.2 Pigments 473
15.3 Plasticizers 482
15.4 Solvents and diluents 484
15.5 Flame retardants 485
15.6 Impact modifiers 486
15.7 Antioxidants 487
15.8 Curatives, crosslinkers, initiators 488
15.9 Catalysts 490
15.10 Impurities 491
15.11 Summary 492
References 492
16 WEATHERING OF COMPOUNDED PRODUCTS 497
16.1 Adhesives 497
16.1.1 Requirements 497
16.1.2 Lifetime expectations 499
16.1.3 Relevant degradation mechanisms 499
16.1.4 Important changes 502
16.2 Aerospace 502
16.2.1 Requirements 502
16.2.2 Lifetime expectations 503
16.2.3 Important changes 504
16.3 Appliances 507
16.4 Automotive parts 508
16.4.1 Requirements 508
16.4.2 Lifetime expectations 509
16.4.3 Relevant degradation mechanisms 509
16.4.4 Important changes 510
16.5 Automotive coatings 512
16.5.1 Requirements 512
16.5.2 Lifetime expectations 513
16.5.3 Relevant degradation mechanisms 514
16.5.4 Important changes 515
16.6 Coated fabrics 517
16.6.1 Requirements 517
16.6.2 Lifetime expectations 518
16.6.3 Relevant degradation mechanisms 518
16.6.4 Important changes 519
16.7 Coil coated materials 520
Handbook of Material Weathering ix
16.8 Composites 521
16.8.1 Requirements 521
16.8.2 Lifetime expectations 522
16.8.3 Relevant degradation mechanisms 523
16.8.4 Important changes 524
16.9 Concrete 526
16.10 Conservation 526
16.10.1 Requirements 526
16.10.2 Lifetime expectations 528
16.10.3 Important changes 528
16.11 Construction materials 530
16.12 Dental materials 534
16.13 Electronics and electrical materials 535
16.14 Foams 535
16.15 Geosynthetics 536
16.16 Glazing materials 538
16.17 Greenhouse film 539
16.18 Laminates 541
16.19 Medical equipment and supplies 542
16.20 Packaging materials 543
16.20.1 Bottles 543
16.20.2 Containers 543
16.20.3 Crates and trays 544
16.20.4 Films 545
16.21 Paints and coatings 545
16.21.1 Requirements 545
16.21.2 Lifetime expectations 547
16.21.3 Relevant degradation mechanisms 548
16.21.4 Important changes 551
16.22 Pipes and tubing 557
16.23 Pulp and paper 559
16.24 Roofing materials 561
16.25 Sealants 563
16.25.1 Requirements 564
16.25.2 Life expectation 565
16.25.3 Important changes 565
16.26 Siding 567
16.27 Solar cells and collectors 568
16.28 Textiles 570
16.29 Windows 582
16.30 Wire and cable 584
16.31 Wood 585
References 589
17 STABILIZATION AND STABILIZERS 603
17.1 Limiting the incoming radiation 604
x Table of Contents
17.2 Deactivation of excited states and free radicals 612
17.3 Elimination of singlet oxygen, peroxide decomposition, and limiting
oxidative changes 616
17.4 Defect removal 620
17.5 Stability of UV stabilizers 621
17.6 Distribution of UV absorber 628
17.7 Stabilizer entrapment and interaction 631
17.8 Protective coatings 633
17.9 New in stabilization 635
References 638
18 BIODEGRADATION 643
18.1 Biodegradation environment 643
18.2 Enzymatic reactions 645
18.3 Biodegradation of materials 647
18.4 Biocides 651
18.5 Methods of testing 656
18.6 Controlled biodegradation 659
References 660
19 RECYCLING 663
19.1 Effect of degradation on recycling 663
19.2 Re-stabilization of material for recycling 666
19.3 Multilayer materials 668
19.4 Removable paint 669
19.5 Chemical recycling 670
References 671
20 ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS CRACKING 673
20.1 Definitions 673
20.2 Parameters controlling ESC 673
20.2.1 Material composition 673
20.2.2 Morphology and dimensions 675
20.2.3 Processing and performance conditions 676
20.2.4 Solubility parameters of solvents and polymers 676
20.2.5 Diffusion 678
20.2.6 Load and internal stress 680
20.2.7 Time 683
20.2.8 Temperature 684
20.3 Mechanisms of environmental stress cracking 685
20.4 Kinetics of environmental stress cracking 686
20.5 Effect of ESC on material durability 688
20.6 Methods of testing 689
References 692
21 INTERRELATION BETWEEN CORROSION AND WEATHERING 695
References 699
22 WEATHERING OF STONES 701
References 709