Handbook of Liquefied Natural Gas PDF
Preview Handbook of Liquefied Natural Gas
Handbook of Liquefied Natural Gas Saeid Mokhatab Gas Processing Consultant, Canada John Y. Mak Technical Director and Senior Fellow, Fluor, USA Jaleel V. Valappil Senior Engineering Specialist, Bechtel OG&C, USA David A. Wood Principal Consultant, DWA Energy Limited, UK AMSTERDAM(cid:129)BOSTON(cid:129)HEIDELBERG(cid:129)LONDON NEWYORK(cid:129)OXFORD(cid:129)PARIS(cid:129)SANDIEGO SANFRANCISCO(cid:129)SINGAPORE(cid:129)SYDNEY(cid:129)TOKYO GulfProfessionalPublishingisanimprintofElsevier GulfProfessionalisanimprintofElsevier TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Oxford,Kidlington,Oxford,OX51GB Firstedition2014 Copyright(cid:1)2014ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystemortransmittedinanyformorby anymeanselectronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwisewithoutthepriorwrittenpermission ofthepublisher PermissionsmaybesoughtdirectlyfromElsevier’sScience&TechnologyRightsDepartmentinOxford, UK:phone(+44)(0)1865843830;fax(+44)(0)1865853333;email:[email protected] youcansubmityourrequestonlinebyvisitingtheElsevierwebsiteathttp://elsevier.com/locate/permissions, andselectingObtainingpermissiontouseElseviermaterial Notice Noresponsibilityisassumedbythepublisherforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatter ofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationofanymethods,products,instructions orideascontainedinthematerialherein.Becauseofrapidadvancesinthemedicalsciences,inparticular, independentverificationofdiagnosesanddrugdosagesshouldbemade BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary LibraryofCongressCatalogNumber AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress ISBN–13:978-0-12-404585-9 ForinformationonallGulfProfessionalpublications visitourwebsiteatbooks.elsevier.com PrintedandboundintheUnitedStates 1415161718 10987654321 Dedication Wearetrulyfortunatetohavecollaboratedwithsomanyexpertcontributorsfromallovertheworldin the development of this handbook. Their insight taking “theory to practice” is much needed in the academic as well as the business worlds. Thanks are due to the many companies, institutions, and universitiesinthesupportofthiswork,manyofwhomareidentifiedinthetextandthebackofeach chapter as sources. Wewould particularly like to acknowledge the generous support of Fluor Corp., Bechtel Corp., DWA Energy Limited, Baker Engineering & Risk Consultants Inc., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, University of Maryland, the Mexican Petroleum Institute, and the BulgarianAcademyofSciences.Wealsorecognizethesupportofourfamilies,friends,andsignificant others; without their patience, encouragement, and inspiration throughout the process, this wouldn’t havebeensuchanenjoyableendeavor.Appreciationisalsoduetoourvariousmentorsovertheyears for the encouragement ofthe development oftechnologies and innovations. Thankyou,all. Toliveforatimeclosetogreatmindsisthebestkindofeducation. John Buchanan Authors’ Biographical Sketches Saeid Mokhatab is one of the most instantly recognizable names in the natural gas industry with dedicatedtechnicalexpertiseinthemidstreamsector.Hehasbeenontheinternationaladvisoryboard ofanumberofpetroleum/energyconsultingfirmsaroundtheworldandhasbeenactivelyinvolvedin several large-scale gas-field development projects, concentrating on the design, precommissioning, and startup of processing plants. He has over 200 technical publications to his credit, including Elsevier’sHandbookofNaturalGasTransmission&Processing,whichhasbeenverywellreceivedby professionals in the natural gas industry and academia worldwide. He founded the Elsevier peer- reviewed Journal of Natural Gas Science & Engineering; has held editorial positions in several prestigious journals/book publishing companies for the hydrocarbon processing/LNG industry; and served as a member of technical committee for a number of professional societies and famous gas- processingconferencesworldwide.Asaresultofhisoutstandingworkinthenaturalgasindustry,he hasreceivedanumberofinternationalawardsincludingtheEinsteinGoldMedalofHonor,Chilingar GoldMedalofScientistsWithoutBorders,KapitsaGoldMedalofHonor,andtheGolomb-Chilingar “GiantsofScienceandEngineering”GoldMedalofHonor;andhasbeenlistedinseveralinternational biographical directories. JohnY.MakisaSeniorFellowandTechnicalDirectoratFluor,USA,andleadsthetechnologyand designdevelopmentforthechemicalandenergysectors.Hehasmadesignificantcontributionstothe technologies in gas treating, emission controls, NGL recoveries, carbon capture, natural gas lique- faction and regasification, power generation, and coal gasification. He has over 50 publications on thesesubjectsandisalsolistedastheprimaryinventoronover80patentandpatent-pendingprocesses. Throughouthiscareer,hehasdevelopedover100oilandgasandenergyprojectsinvariouslocations andappliedhisdesigninnovationstoimproveenergyefficiency,loweremissions,andreducecostfor manyofhisclients.HeispioneeringontheuseofLNGcoldinpowerplantintegrationthatincreases overallefficiencyandreducesemissionsatLNGreceivingterminals.Heisalsoontheadvisoryboard of the China CoalForum and severaltechnology companies inChina. JaleelV.Valappilisasenior engineering specialistwithBechtelOil,Gas &Chemicals’sAdvanced Simulation Group in Houston, TX, USA. He has several years of experience in process simulation, advanced process control, and optimization of various processes including LNG. Before joining Bechtel, he was a senior consulting engineer with the Advanced Control Services Group of Aspen Technology Inc., where he was responsible for developing and implementing advanced control and optimization solutions for a variety of processes. He has worked extensively on developing and deployingprocesssimulationmodelsforapplicationsindesign,engineering,andoperationsofLNG plantsbuiltbyBechtelincollaborationwithConocoPhillipsovertheyears.Heidentifiedthebenefits oflifecyclemodelingforLNGplantsanditsuseforplantdesign,operability/controllabilitystudies, startup simulations and Operator Training Simulators, multitrain LNG facility debottlenecking, and operationaltroubleshooting.Dr.ValappilhasalsodevelopedanddeployedAdvancedProcessControl technology for LNG processes, for plants in the engineering stage and for plants that are already xix xx Authors’ Biographical Sketches operating. He has published several papers on LNG plant simulation and control in both industry conferences and journals and holds patents related to LNG plant control and turbo-machinery operation. DavidA.Woodhasmorethanthirtyyearsofinternationaloilandgasexperiencespanningtechnical andcommercialexplorationandproductionoperations,midstreamanddownstreamprojects,contract evaluation,andseniorcorporatemanagement.HisearlyenergyindustryexperienceincludesPhillips Petroleum, Amoco, Lundin Oil, and other independents working around the world. He is now an independent international consultant, training provider, and expert witness. He has published an extensivebodyofworkondiverseenergyrelatedtopicsincludingtheinternationalenergymarkets,oil andgasfiscaldesigns,LNG,GTL,gasstorage,andgassupply.Hepublishesregularreportsonglobal LNG industry activities and developments for World Oil. He acts as an adviser to governments and companies on technical and commercial aspects of the LNG industry through his consultancyDWA EnergyLimited.Dr.Woodisactivelyinvolvedinresearch,publication,andtrainingprogramsandis theassistanteditor-in-chiefoftheJournalofNaturalGasScience&Engineering.Hehasdeveloped and participates in online oil and gas MBA programs with a focus on LNG and global gas supply chains. Contributors Hanfei Tuo University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA Author of Chapter 4, Energy and Exergy Analyses of Refrigeration/Liquefaction Cycles. Yunho Hwang, Abdullah Al-AbulKarem, Amir Mortazavi and Reinhard Radermacher University of Maryland, USA Authors of Chapter 5, Natural Gas Liquefaction Cycle Enhancements and Optimization. John L. Woodward Baker Engineering & Risk Consultants Inc, USA Author of Chapter 9, LNG Safety and Security Aspects. Blanca E. Garcı´a-Flores, Jacinto A´guila-Herna´ndez, Fernando Garcı´a-Sa´nchez (Mexican Petroleum Institute, Mexico) andRoumianaP.Stateva(InstituteofChemical Engineering, BulgarianAcademy of Sciences, Bulgaria) Authors of Appendix 2, Modelling the Phase Behaviour of LNG Systems with Equations of State. xxi Preface Natural gas isdefinitely aviable option in bridging ourenergygap tothe nextcentury ofrenewable energy. Natural gas is recognized as a safe and environmental responsible fuel and has reduced emissions in many parts of the world. Liquefied natural gas (LNG), being a denser fluid, is an economicalwaytotransportandstorenaturalgas,whetherviaLNGcargoshipsortrucksfromremote locationstotheconsumers.LNGcontinuestoincreaseitsshareofyear-on-yeargrowthintheglobal natural gastrade andremainsone of the fastest growingsectorsofthe energyindustry. The LNG supply chain extends from upstream production, LNG production plant, shipping, storage,andregasificationtosupplytosalesgaspipelinesandpowerplantusers.LNGproductionis capitalintensiveandtherecentcostshavedeterredthecommitmentofmostinvestors,andanyfuture LNGproductionplantownersmustreevaluatethecurrenttechnologiesfora“fit-for-purpose”design to reduce the life cyclecosts. This book is written for the complete LNG supply chain, from liquefaction to regasification, for LNGplantdesigners,engineers,andoperators,aswellasLNGprojectdevelopersandmanagers.This bookprovidesanoverviewoftheLNGindustry’fundamentals,engineeringanddesignprinciples.It can be used as a textbook for students in petroleum and chemical engineering curricula or as a referenceguidetoengineeringandoperatingcompanies.Thefirstchapteraddressesthefundamentals of LNG from liquefaction to regasification and LNG commerce and the later chapters include more advancedtopics,suchasliquefactioncycleoptimization,controlandautomation,safetyandsecurity, andLNGinnovations.Webelievethisbookhasassembled a“firstofakind”collectionofmaterials that address the fullspectrum ofthe technologies inthe LNG supply chain. Thematerialsusedinthisbookareobtainedfromdifferentsourcesincludingdistinguishedpapers and publications in recent years, standards and recommendations published by several research in- stitutions, and our own research papers. These references are listed in the back of each chapter for those readers interested in learning more on the subjects. Wewish to thank chapter authors for their contributions.WealsoappreciatethepatienceandassistanceoftheeditorialstaffatElsevierScience &Technology.Finally,wewishtoexpressgratitudetoourfamiliesandfriendsfortheirsupportand patience during the preparation ofthis book. WeunderstandthatLNGtechnologiesareevolvingandtheLNGbusinessischanging.Weaccept thecontentsofthisworkmaynotbeperfect,butwebelievethatthepublicationofthisbookistimely asnaturalgasisafavoritetopicintoday’snews.Wealsohopethatthematerialsofthisbookwillbe updatedwithnewerandbettertechnologiesandinnovationsastheLNGindustryprogressestothenext millennium. Saeid Mokhatab JohnY. Mak JaleelV. Valappil DavidA. Wood xxiii Endorsements “This book is a great primer on all aspects of the LNG Industry. I highly recommend it to anyone interestedinacomprehensiveoverviewoftheindustry.Itcontainsthekeyinformationweallsearch forinasinglelocationanditdoesanexcellentjobofhighlightingthekeyconsiderationsthatmustbe takeninto accountfor anyLNG project in development.” TomPhalen VicePresidentofUpstreamProjectOperations,Fluor,USA “ThisbookwillbeawelcomeadditiontolibrariesforanyoneintheLNGBusinessfromcommercial, technical or operational. Even a brief review of the Table of Contents leaves one with a WOWand wondering where to start as it covers all the areas that onewould want to either review or dive into something new. Ihighly recommend thisvaluable resource.” David Messersmith BechtelFellowandManagerofLNGTechnologyGroup,BechtelOG&C,USA “Onethingthatmakesthisbookavaluableadditiontoanyone’stechnicallibraryisitscompletenessin the coverage of all aspects of the LNG industry inclusive of contract negotiations, design, EPC execution,facilitiesstartup,andoperation.Aswellascoveringsometopicsrarelydiscussedandhardto findintheliterature,thecomplexelementsoftheLNGindustryarefullyaddressedinastraightforward fashion,whichmakesthebookappealingtoallpartieswhoareinvolvedintheglobalLNGbusiness.” Philip Hunter SeniorLNGConsultant,Bechtel,UK “ThisisthefirstbookthathasfilledallthegapsinthetreatmentofcompleteLNGsupplychainfrom conceptual to commissioning and beyond. It is an essential addition to the bookshelf of any LNG industryprofessionalregardlessofwhichsectoroftheindustrythatindividualisinvolved.Iwillhighly recommend it as atextbookfor anyNatural Gas graduate degree program anywhere.” Dr. SureshC.Sharma ONEOKChairProfessorandDirectorofNaturalGasEngineeringandManagement UniversityofOklahoma,USA “This well-balanced handbook is the only book of its kind, covering all aspects of the LNG supply chaininmoredetail.Ihighlyrecommenditasanexcellentreferenceforallprofessionals,engineers, and scientists working in the LNG industry, and as a textbook forgraduate students in thegas engi- neeringcurriculum.” Dr. Brian F.Towler ProfessorofChemicalandPetroleumEngineeringandCEASFellowfor HydrocarbonEnergyResources,UniversityofWyoming,USA “Thisbookisanimportantcontributiontotheprofessionalliteratureinthecrucialareaoftheemerging energy scene, offering a complete coverage of key topics in the LNG supply chain. The complete, xxv xxvi Endorsements accurate,andeasy-to-usedescriptionofissuesisalsoextendedtocross-cutcontroversialtopicssuchas LNG safety. The book provides an excellent access to a number of design guidelines and operating procedures,whichmakesitastandalonereferenceforLNGindustryprofessionalsandastate-of-the- arttextbookforgraduate programs onthe subject.” Dr. Valerio Cozzani ProfessorofChemicalEngineeringandDirectorofPost-GraduateProgramonOil& GasProcessDesign,UniversityofBologna,Italy “ItisthefirstbookonLNGsupplychainmanagementandgivesanaccuratepictureofwheretheLNG industrystandstoday.Thishigh-quality,comprehensivebookprovidesabetterunderstandingofLNG plant design and operational considerations and covers subject areas missed by other references in these areas. I believe it is a valuable addition to the literature and will serve as a desk reference for practicing engineers and technologists, and as an excellent source of teaching and learning in un- dergraduate and graduate programs onthe subject area.” Dr. FaisalKhan ProfessorandValeResearchChairofSafetyandRiskEngineering MemorialUniversity,Canada “GiventhefactthatLNGisthefastestgrowingenergycarrierintheworldandthetrendistowarda widerrangeofapplicationsforLNGtechnologies,ahandbooklikethisonecoveringtheentireLNG supplychainwithissuesofdesign,operation,andsafetywillbehighlyappreciatedbyplantdesigners, engineers, and operators in the LNG industry. Of course, parts of the book also provide excellent textbookorreference materialforgraduate coursesinthegasprocessing field.” Dr. Truls Gundersen ProfessorofEnergyandProcessEngineering NorwegianUniversityofScienceandTechnology,Norway “ThiscomprehensivehandbookprovidespracticalguidanceforallprofessionalsintheLNGindustry while maintaining as much rigor as possible. I believe academic institutions that have courses in natural gas engineering should also consider this handbook as a textbook. Congratulations to the authors for producinga useful, quality handbook.” Dr. Kenneth R. Hall JackE.&FrancesBrownChairandProfessorofChemicalEngineering,TexasA&MUniversity, USA&AssociateDean,Research&GraduateStudies,TexasA&MUniversityatQatar,Qatar CHAPTER 1 LNG Fundamentals 1.1 Introduction Natural gas has remained the fastest growing energyresource inmostregionsof theworld for more thantwodecades,drivenbythelowgreenhousegasemissionsaswellashighconversionefficiencyin power generation. For almost a century, natural gas has been transported safely, reliably, and economicallyviapipelines.Pipelinesprovedtobeideallysuitedtothesupplyandmarketconditions of the twentieth century, when large reservoirs of conventional natural gas are found in accessible locations. Pipelines provided the stability and security of supply and continue to do so where large accessible gas reserves remain. However, over the past decades it has become clear that significant quantitiesofnewgasreservesarenotsoconvenientlylocated.Attentionhasshiftedtomoreisolated large gas reservoirs that were previously thought to be too remote, or technically too difficult and costly to develop. A number of solutions for exploiting stranded gas reserves are currently being developedandconsideredforcommercialization.Ontheotherhand,overthepastthreedecades,only theliquefiednaturalgas(LNG)industryhassuccessfullybroughtmanylargeremotegasfieldstothe gasmarketsthatareunreachablebypipeline(e.g.,Japan,SouthKorea).Today,theLNGsupplychains have diversified and introduced competition into markets previously “captured” by pipeline gas suppliers,andhaveimprovedthesecurityofenergysupplyofmanyconsumingnations andreduced thegeopolitical andpoliticalconstraints on global gas supply. ThischapterbrieflysummarizesthecomponentsoftheLNGsupplychaindthestepsandindustrial processes used in producing, storing, and delivering LNG to commercial and residential customers. ForthosereadersnewtotheLNGindustryandunfamiliaraboutwhatitis,howitisused,anditsbasic safetyandenvironmental track record, Appendix 1is included. 1.2 Monetizing stranded gas Despite being one ofthe mostabundant energysources on the planet, more than one-third of global conventional natural gas reserves remain stranded (Thackeray and Leckie, 2002) and undeveloped. Growingglobalenergydemand,diminishingoilresources,higheroilprices,theno-flaringregulations, andthebenefitsoflowergreenhousegasemissionsfromtheburningofnaturalgasareleadingtothe urgency in the quest for commercially viable technologies for transporting stranded gas over long distances(Mokhatab and Wood, 2007a;Wood et al., 2008a). Overthelasttwodecadesdifferenttechnologieshavebeendevelopedandproposedformonetizing hitherto remote gas reserves (see Figure 1-1). However, most of them are not fully matured to the 1 HandbookofLiquefiedNaturalGas.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-404585-9.00001-5 Copyright(cid:1)2014ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
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