Handbook of Image-based Security Techniques

423 Pages·2018·8.93 MB·english

by  Shivendra Shivani, Suneeta Agarwal, Jasjit S. Suri

Handbook of
Image-Based Security
Techniques
Shivendra Shivani
Suneeta Agarwal
Jasjit S. Suri
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
Version Date: 20180427
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-1-38-05421-9 (Hardback)
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
Contents
Foreword xxiii
Preface xxv
Authors xxix
Section I Visual Cryptography
hapter
C 1(cid:4) Visual Cryptography: Introduction 3
1.1 INTRODUCTION 4
1.2 VISUALCRYPTOGRAPHY 5
1.3 APPLICATIONSOFVISUALCRYPTOGRAPHY 7
1.3.1 Trojan-Free Secure Transaction 7
1.3.2 Authentication 10
1.3.3 Access Control 11
1.3.4 Transaction Tracking 11
1.3.5 Watermarking 11
1.4 PRELIMINARIES 11
1.5 FUNDAMENTALPRINCIPLESOFVISUALSECRET
SHARING 13
1.5.1 Pixels Expansion m 13
1.5.2 Contrast α 14
1.5.3 Basis Matrices 15
1.5.4 Concept of Black and White Pixels in Visual
Cryptography 16
1.6 FORMATIONOFABASISMATRIX 16
1.6.1 Observations Related to The Basis Matrix
Creation Approach of Naor and Shamir 17
1.6.2 Essential Conditions for a Basis Matrix 18
1.7 DIFFERENTEVALUATIONPARAMETERS 19
1.7.1 Objective Evaluation Parameters 19
1.7.2 Subjective Parameters 23
hapter
C 2(cid:4) Various Dimensions of Visual Cryptography 27
2.1 VARIOUSDIMENSIONSOFVISUALCRYPTOGRAPHY 28
2.1.1 Traditional Visual Cryptography (TVC) 29
2.1.1.1 Threshold visual cryptography 30
2.1.2 Extended Visual Cryptography (EVC) 32
2.1.2.1 Halftone visual cryptography (HVC) 32
2.1.2.2 Significance of a halftone image over a
binary image 33
2.1.2.3 Halftone image creation using error
diffusion 33
2.1.2.4 Tagged visual cryptography (TVC) 37
2.1.2.5 Friendly visual cryptography (FVC) 39
2.1.2.6 Size invariant visual cryptography 39
2.1.2.7 Progressive visual cryptography (PVC) 42
2.1.2.8 Progressive visual cryptography with
meaningful shares without pixel expan-
sion 43
2.1.3 Dynamic Visual Cryptography (DVC) 47
2.1.3.1 Multitone/Continuous tone visual
cryptography (MVC) 47
2.1.3.2 MVCwithunexpandedmeaningfulshares 49
2.1.3.3 Perfect recovery of the secret image in
MVC 50
2.1.3.4 Visual cryptography with multiple se-
crets or multi secret sharing (MSS) 51
2.1.3.5 Angle restriction problem in MSS 51
2.1.3.6 Multi secret sharing with unexpanded
meaningful shares 54
2.1.3.7 XOR-based visual cryptography 54
2.1.3.8 Hybrid approach with XOR-based VC,
multitone VC, FVC, size invariant VC
and multi secret sharing 56
2.1.3.9 Verifiable visual cryptography (VVC) 57
2.1.3.10 Hybrid approach with VVC 60
2.1.3.11 Random grid-based visual cryptography
(RGVC) 60
2.1.3.12 Hybrid approaches using RGVC 61
hapter
C 3(cid:4) VC Approaches with Computationless Recovery
of Secrets 65
3.1 COMPUTATIONLESSANDCOMPUTATION-BASED
VISUALCRYPTOGRAPHYAPPROACHES 66
3.2 BASICS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTATION-
LESSVCAPPROACHES 68
3.2.1 Development of Threshold Visual Cryptography 68
3.2.2 Development of a Halftone Visual Cryptography
(HVC) Scheme 74
3.2.3 Development of a Friendly Visual Cryptography
(FVC) Scheme 77
3.2.4 Development of Size Invariant Visual
Cryptography 80
3.2.4.1 Preprocessing of secret image for size
invariant visual cryptography 80
3.2.4.2 Size invariant share generation with the
help of the preprocessed secret 84
3.2.5 Development of a Hybrid Approach Using
Friendly Visual Cryptography (FVC) and Size
Invariant Visual Cryptography 86
3.2.5.1 Steps for making a hybrid approach 86
3.2.6 Development of Random Grid-Based Visual
Cryptography 91
3.2.6.1 Steps to generate shares using a random
grid 93
3.2.7 Development of Visual Cryptography with
Multiple Secrets 95
3.2.7.1 Steps to generate shares for multiple
secrets 95
3.2.8 Development of Progressive Visual
Cryptography (PVC) 100
hapter
C 4(cid:4) VC Approaches with Computation-Based
Recovery of Secrets 107
4.1 COMPUTATIONLESSANDCOMPUTATION-BASED
VISUALCRYPTOGRAPHYAPPROACHES 109
4.1.1 Computation-based VC vs. Share Alignment
Problem 109
4.2 BASICS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTATION-
BASEDVCAPPROACHES 111
4.2.1 Development of XOR-Based Visual Cryptography112
4.2.2 Basis Matrix Creation for the XOR-Based VC
Approach 112
4.2.3 XOR-Based VC with Unexpanded Meaningful
Shares 116
4.2.3.1 Steps to develop XOR-based VC with
unexpanded meaningful shares 116
4.2.4 Development of Multitone Visual Cryptography 117
4.2.4.1 Steps to develop multitone visual
cryptography with random shares 119
4.2.4.2 Steps to generate meaningful shares for
a multitone secret 122
4.2.5 Development of XOR-Based Multi Secret
Sharing Approach for Multitone Secrets 123
4.2.5.1 Steps to develop XOR-based multi
secret sharing approach for multitone
secrets with random shares 123
4.2.6 XOR-Based MSS with Unexpanded Meaningful
Shares 129
4.2.7 Development of Verifiable Visual Cryptography 129
4.2.7.1 Providing verifiability into the shares
generated by computationless VC
approaches 130
4.2.7.2 Steps for adding verifiability into the
sharesgeneratedbycomputationlessVC
approaches 130
4.2.7.3 Adding verifiability into the shares
generated by computation-based VC
approaches 134
4.2.7.4 Steps for providing verifiability in the
shares generated by computation-based
VC approaches 136
Section II Digital Image Watermarking
hapter
C 5(cid:4) Digital Image Watermarking: Introduction 145
5.1 INTRODUCTION 147
5.1.1 Significance of the Word “Watermark” 149
5.1.2 Importance of Watermarking 149
5.2 WATERMARKINGAPPLICATIONS 150
5.2.1 Proof of Ownership 150
5.2.2 Ownership Identification 150
5.2.3 Broadcast Monitoring 150
5.2.4 Content Authentication 151
5.2.5 Tamper Recovery 152
5.2.6 Transaction Tracking 152
5.2.7 Copy Control 155
5.2.8 Device Control 155
5.3 CLASSIFICATIONOFWATERMARKINGTECHNIQUES 155
5.3.1 Based on Visibility 156
5.3.1.1 Visible watermarking 156
5.3.1.2 Invisible/hidden watermarking 157
5.3.2 Based on Degree of Resistance to Attacks 157
5.3.2.1 Robust watermark 157
5.3.2.2 Fragile watermark 158
5.3.2.3 Semi-fragile watermark 158
5.3.2.4 Dual watermarking 159
5.3.3 Based on Watermark Embedding 159
5.3.3.1 Block-based watermarking 159
5.3.3.2 Pixel-based watermarking 160
5.3.4 Based on Watermark Detection/Extraction 160
5.3.4.1 Non-blind/Non-oblivious watermarking 160
5.3.4.2 Semi-blind watermarking 161
5.3.4.3 Blind/oblivious watermarking 161
5.4 PROPERTIESOFWATERMARKS 161
5.4.1 Robustness 161
5.4.2 Fragility 163
5.4.3 Imperceptibility 163
5.4.4 Capacity 163
5.4.5 Security 164
5.4.6 Computational Cost 164
5.5 ATTACKS 164
5.5.1 Types of Attacks 164
5.5.1.1 Intentional attack 164
5.5.1.2 Unintentional attack 165
5.5.2 Example of Attacks in the Watermarking System 166
5.5.2.1 Removal attack 166
5.5.2.2 Addition attack 166
5.5.2.3 Cryptographic attacks 166
5.5.2.4 Copy paste attack 166
5.5.2.5 Print scan attack 166
5.5.2.6 Geometric attack 167
5.6 WATERMARKINGDOMAIN 167
5.6.1 Spatial Domain 167
5.6.2 Frequency Domain 168
5.7 MEASURESOFEVALUATION 168
5.7.1 Subjective Measures 169
5.7.2 Objective Measures 170
5.7.3 Other Evaluation Parameters 173
5.7.3.1 False acceptance rate (FAR) 173
5.7.3.2 False rejection rate (FRR) 173
5.8 WATERMARKINGSCHEMEWITHRECOVERY
CAPABILITIES 173
5.8.1 Recovery Using Spatial Domain 173
5.8.2 Recovery Using Frequency Domain 174
hapter
C 6(cid:4) Fragile Watermarking 177
6.1 INTRODUCTION 179
6.1.1 Fragile Watermark as a Hash Function for Images179
6.1.2 Fragility of a Fragile Watermark 179
6.1.3 Types of Fragile Watermark 180
6.1.3.1 Onthebasisoftheembeddingmechanism181
6.1.3.2 On the basis of the extraction mechanism182
6.2 GENERATIONOFAFRAGILEWATERMARK 183
6.2.1 Image-Based Fragile Watermark 183
6.2.1.1 Relation between cover image and
image-based watermark 184
6.2.2 Self-Embedding Techniques 187
6.2.2.1 Relation between cover image and self-
embedding watermark 188
6.2.3 Example of Self-Embedding Techniques 189
6.2.4 Significance of the XOR Operation in
Self-Embedding 193
6.2.5 Fragile Watermark with Symmetric Key 194
6.2.6 Watermark Generation for Color Images 195
6.3 EMBEDDINGOFAFRAGILEWATERMARK 196
6.3.1 Domain Selection 196
6.3.1.1 Spatial domain 196
6.3.1.2 Frequency domain 197
6.3.1.3 Which domain is suitable for a fragile
watermark? 197
6.3.2 Bit Plane Slicing 197
6.3.2.1 Which bit should be chosen for
embedding? 200
6.3.2.2 How many bits should be chosen for
embedding? 201
6.3.3 Imperceptibility vs. Tamper Detection 204
6.3.3.1 Block-based embedding 204
6.3.3.2 Pixel-based embedding 205
6.3.3.3 Region-of-interest (ROI)-based
embedding 207
6.4 EXTRACTIONOFAFRAGILEWATERMARK 209
6.4.1 Unintentional Tampering 209
6.4.2 Intentional Tampering 210
6.4.3 Semi-Fragile Watermarks 211
6.4.4 Tamper Localization 212
6.4.4.1 Tamperlocalizationfornon-blindfragile
watermark 213
6.4.4.2 Tamper localization for semi-blind
fragile watermark 213
6.4.4.3 Tamper localization for blind fragile
watermark 213
6.4.4.4 Pixel wise tamper detection 213
6.4.4.5 Block wise tamper detection 214
6.4.5 Tamper Detection Parameters 214
hapter
C 7(cid:4) Fragile Watermark with Recovery Capabilities in
Spatial Domain 219
7.1 INTRODUCTION 221
7.1.1 Fragile Watermark with Recovery Capabilities 221
7.1.2 Summary Bit Stream: Recovery Information 221
7.1.3 Summary and Authentication Bit Streams 222
7.1.4 Fragility of Fragile Watermark 222
7.1.5 Types of Fragile Watermark with Recovery
Capabilities 223
7.1.5.1 Onthebasisoftheembeddingmechanism223
7.1.5.2 On the basis of the extraction mechanism226
7.1.6 Ideal Category for Fragile Watermark with
Recovery Capabilities 227
7.2 GENERATIONOFAFRAGILEWATERMARK 228
7.2.1 Self-Embedding Techniques 228
7.2.1.1 Self-embedding with block-based
authentication and block-based recovery 229
7.2.1.2 Self-embedding with pixel-based
authentication and block-based recovery 234
7.2.1.3 Self-embedding with pixel-based
authentication and pixel-based recovery 234
7.3 EMBEDDINGOFFRAGILEWATERMARK 237
7.3.1 Embedding and Originating Blocks are Same: 237
7.3.2 Originating Blocks are Embedded into
Sequentially Mapped Embedding Blocks 237
7.3.3 Originating Blocks are Embedded into
Randomly mapped Embedding Blocks 239
7.4 EXTRACTIONOFAFRAGILEWATERMARK 240
7.4.1 Tamper Localization and Recovery 241