Handbook of Fuels: Energy Sources for Transportation

579 Pages·2022·13.634 MB·English

by  Barbara Elvers (editor), Andrea Schütze (editor)

HandbookofFuels

Handbook of Fuels
EnergySourcesforTransportation
Editedby
BarbaraElversand
AndreaSchütze
Second,CompletelyRevised,andUpdatedEdition
Editors AllbookspublishedbyWILEY-VCH
arecarefullyproduced.Nevertheless,
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v
Contents
PrefacetotheSecondEdition xvii
PrefacetotheFirstEdition xix
1 Introduction 1
KlausRedersandAndreaSchütze
1.1 HistoryoftheSparkIgnited“Otto”EngineandofGasoline 3
1.2 HistoryoftheDieselEngineandofDieselFuel 14
1.3 HistoryofAlternativeFuels 19
1.3.1 Ethanol 19
1.3.2 Methanol 24
1.3.3 VegetableOilsandHydrotreatedVegetableOils(HVOs) 24
1.3.4 Biodiesel/FAME 25
1.3.5 LiquefiedPetroleumGas(LPG) 28
1.3.6 NaturalGas 30
1.4 EmissionRegulationsWorldwide 33
1.4.1 Europe 35
1.4.2 UnitedStates 41
1.4.3 Japan 48
1.4.4 China 51
1.5 Well-to-WheelAnalysisofAlternativeFuels 53
1.5.1 Life-cycleAssessment 54
1.5.2 Well-to-Wheel 55
1.5.3 BoundaryConditionsoftheJRCStudy 56
1.5.4 SummaryofResultsoftheJRCStudy 57
1.5.4.1 AlternativeLiquidFuels 60
1.5.4.2 AlternativeGaseousFuels 61
1.5.4.3 ElectricityandHydrogen 61
1.5.4.4 2020+Horizon 62
References 64
vi Contents
PartI AutomotiveFuels 69
2 EngineTechnology 71
WernerDabelstein,ArnoReglitzky,AndreaSchütze,andKlausReders
2.1 OttoEngines 71
2.2 DieselEngines 73
References 75
3 FuelCompositionandEngineEfficiency 77
WernerDabelstein,ArnoReglitzky,AndreaSchütze,KlausReders,and
AndreasBrunner
3.1 FuelCompositionandEngineEfficiency 77
3.1.1 QualityAspectsofGasoline 77
3.1.1.1 OctaneQuality 77
3.1.1.2 Volatility 79
3.1.1.3 FuelCompositiontoReduceToxicityandExhaustEmissions 80
3.1.1.4 Stability,Cleanliness,etc. 83
3.1.1.5 PerformanceAdditives 84
3.1.2 QualityAspectsofDieselFuels 84
3.1.2.1 IgnitionQuality 84
3.1.2.2 Density 85
3.1.2.3 SulfurContent 85
3.1.2.4 ColdFlowProperties 85
3.1.2.5 Lubricity 85
3.1.2.6 Viscosity 86
3.1.2.7 Volatility 86
3.1.2.8 DieselFuelStability,Cleanliness,andSafety 86
3.1.2.9 DieselFuelEffectsonExhaustEmissions 86
3.1.2.10 PerformanceAdditives 88
References 88
4 FuelComponents:Petroleum-derivedFuels 91
WernerDabelstein,ArnoReglitzky,AndreaSchütze,andKlausReders
4.1 Petroleum-derivedFuels 91
4.1.1 GasolineComponents 91
4.1.1.1 Straight-runGasoline 91
4.1.1.2 ThermallyCrackedGasoline 93
4.1.1.3 CatalyticallyCrackedGasoline 93
4.1.1.4 CatalyticReformate(Platformate) 94
4.1.1.5 Isomerate 94
4.1.1.6 Alkylate 94
4.1.1.7 PolymerGasoline 94
4.1.1.8 Oxygenates 95
4.1.2 DieselFuelComponents 95
4.1.2.1 Straight-runMiddleDistillate 95
4.1.2.2 ThermallyCrackedGasOil 96
4.1.2.3 CatalyticallyCrackedGasOil 96
Contents vii
4.1.2.4 HydrocrackedGasOil 97
4.1.2.5 Kerosene 97
4.1.2.6 BiofuelComponents 97
4.1.2.7 SyntheticDieselFuel 98
4.1.3 StorageandTransportation 98
References 99
5 LiquefiedPetroleumGas 101
StephenM.Thompson,GaryRobertson,RobertMyers,andAndreaSchütze
5.1 Introduction 101
5.2 Properties 102
5.3 ProductionandProcessing 103
5.3.1 RecoveryfromNaturalGas 103
5.3.1.1 RecoveryandManufactureintheRefinery 103
5.4 Purification 108
5.4.1 AdsorptivePurification 109
5.4.2 AbsorptivePurification 109
5.5 StorageandTransportation 110
5.5.1 AbovegroundStorage 110
5.5.2 UndergroundStorage 110
5.5.3 Transportation 111
5.6 Uses 111
5.6.1 LPGStandardsandRegulations 112
5.6.1.1 RefuelingInfrastructure 112
5.6.1.2 VehicleConversionstoLPG 113
5.6.2 EnvironmentalBenefits 113
5.6.2.1 Outlook 115
5.7 SafetyAspects 115
5.7.1 OccupationalHealth 116
References 116
6 NaturalGas 119
KlausReders,MargretSchmidt,andAndreaSchütze
6.1 Occurrence 119
6.2 Composition 121
6.3 Processing 123
6.3.1 OilandCondensateRemoval 124
6.3.2 WaterRemoval 124
6.3.3 SeparationofNaturalGasLiquids 125
6.3.3.1 CryogenicExpansionProcess 126
6.3.4 SulfurandCarbonDioxideRemoval 126
6.4 Transport/Distribution/LocalBlending 126
6.5 PropertiesandSpecifications 127
6.6 NaturalGasasAutomotiveFuel 129
6.6.1 VehicleRefuelingSystems 133
6.6.1.1 Slow-FillRefueling 133
6.6.1.2 Fast-FillRefueling 134
viii Contents
6.6.2 VehicleandEngineConcepts 134
6.6.2.1 VehicleTechnology 135
6.6.3 CNGVehiclesintheMarket 137
6.6.4 VehicleFuelSupplySystem 137
6.6.5 CombustionandEmissions 139
6.7 SafetyAspects 141
6.8 Biomethane 141
6.8.1 Production 142
6.8.1.1 AnaerobicFermentation 145
6.8.1.2 BiogasfromSolids 146
6.8.2 UpgradingofBiogastoNaturalGasQuality 147
6.8.2.1 WaterScrubbingandPhysicalScrubbing 147
6.8.2.2 ChemicalAbsorption 148
6.8.2.3 MembraneSeparation 148
6.8.2.4 PressureSwingAdsorption(PSA) 149
6.8.2.5 CryogenicSeparation 149
6.8.3 StorageandTransportation 149
6.8.3.1 Storage 149
6.8.3.2 Distribution 150
6.8.4 BiomethaneRegulations 150
6.8.4.1 RegulationsandStandards 151
6.8.5 Well-to-wheelAnalysisforLPG,CNG,andBiomethane 152
6.8.5.1 Well-to-TankAnalysis 152
6.8.5.2 CompressedBiomethane(CBM) 155
6.8.5.3 Well-to-WheelsAnalysis 156
References 158
7 SyntheticDieselFuels 161
H.P.Calis,WolfgangLüke,IngoDrescher,andAndreaSchütze
7.1 XTLFuels 162
7.1.1 History 162
7.1.2 XTLProductionProcess 162
7.1.2.1 Fischer–TropschProcess 162
7.1.2.2 IH2Technology 166
7.1.2.3 BTLFuels 168
7.1.3 GTLandBTLFuelCharacteristics 170
7.1.3.1 ColdFlowPerformance 171
7.1.3.2 LubricityPerformance 174
7.1.3.3 ImpactonInjectorCleanlinessandSprayCharacteristics 174
7.1.3.4 AdvantagesofSyntheticFuelsforEmissionControl 175
7.1.4 Outlook 178
7.2 DME(DimethylEther)andOMEFuels 180
7.2.1 Introduction 180
7.2.2 FuelStandards 181
7.2.3 FuelProperties 183
7.2.4 InfrastructureandSafety 186
7.2.4.1 UseasFuel 187