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CRC Press Boca Raton New York Copyright © 1997 CRC Press, LLC Acquiring Editor: Harvey M. Kane Project Editor: Albert W. Starkweather, Jr. Cover Designer: Dawn Boyd Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Handbook of food engineering practice / edited by Enrique Rotstein, R. Paul Singh, and Kenneth J. Valentas. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8493-8694-2 (alk. paper) 1. Food industry and trade--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Rotstein, Enrique. II. Singh, R. Paul. III. Valentas, Kenneth J., 1938- . TP370.4.H37 1997 664--dc21 96-53959 CIP This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. 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Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press for such copying. Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 Corporate Blvd., N.W., Boca Raton, FL 33431. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe. © 1997 by CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 0-8493-8694-2 Library of Congress Card Number 96-53959 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Printed on acid-free paper Copyright © 1997 CRC Press, LLC The Editors Enrique Rotstein, Ph.D., is Vice President of Process Technology of the Pillsbury Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota. He is responsible for corporate process development, serving all the different product lines of his company. Dr. Rotstein received his bachelor’s degree in Chemical Engineering from Universidad del Sur, Bahia Blanca, Argentina. He obtained his Ph.D. from Imperial College, University of London, London, U.K. He served successively as Assistant, Associate, and Full Professor of Chemical Engineering at Universidad del Sur. In this capacity he founded and directed PLAPIQUI, Planta Piloto de Ingenieria Quimica, one of the leading Chemical Engineering teaching and research institutes in Latin America. During his academic career he also taught at the University of Minnesota and at Imperial College, holding visiting professorships. He worked for DuPont, Argentina, and for Monsanto Chemical Co., Plastics Division. In 1987 he joined The Pillsbury Company as Director of Process Analysis and Director of Process Engineering. He assumed his present position in 1995. Dr. Rotstein has been a member of the board of the Argentina National Science Council, a member of the executive editorial committee of the Latin American Journal of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, a member of the internal advisory board of Drying Technology, and a member of the editorial advisory boards of Advances in Drying, Physico Chemical Hydrodynamics Journal, and Journal of Food Process Engineering. Since 1991 he has been a member of the Food Engineering Advisory Council, University of California, Davis. He received the Jorge Magnin Prize from the Argentina National Science Council, was Hill Visiting Professor at the University of Minnesota Chemical Engineering and Materials Science Department, was keynote lecturer at a number of international technical conferences, and received the Excellence in Drying Award at the 1992 International Drying Symposium. Dr. Rotstein is the author of nearly 100 papers and has authored or co-authored several books. R. Paul Singh, Ph.D., is a Professor of Food Engineering, Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Cali- fornia, Davis. Dr. Singh graduated in 1970 from Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India, with a degree in Agricultural Engineering. He obtained an M.S. degree from the University of Wisconsin, Madison, and a Ph.D. degree from Michigan State University in 1974. Following a year of teaching at Michigan State University, he moved to the University of California, Davis, in 1975 as an Assistant Professor of Food Engineering. He was promoted to Associate Professor in 1979 and, again, to Professor in 1983. Dr. Singh is a member of the Institute of Food Technologists, American Society of Agricultural Engineers, and Sigma Xi. He received the Samuel Cate Prescott Award for Research, Institute of Food Technologies, in 1982, and the A. W. Farrall Young Educator Award, American Society of Agricultural Engineers in 1986. He was a NATO Senior Guest Lecturer in Portugal in 1987 and 1993, and received the IFT International Award, Institute of Food Technologists, 1988, and the Distinguished Alumnus Award from Punjab Agricultural University in 1989, and the DFISA/FPEI Food Engineering Award in 1997. Dr. Singh has authored and co-authored nine books and over 160 technical papers. He is a co-editor of the Journal of Food Process Engineering. His current research interests are in studying transport phenomena in foods as influenced by structural changes during processing. Copyright © 1997 CRC Press, LLC Kenneth J. Valentas, Ph.D., is Director of the Bioprocess Technology Institute and Adjunct Professor of Chemical Engineering at the University of Minnesota. He received his B.S. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Illinois and his Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Minnesota. Dr. Valentas’ career in the Food Processing Industry spans 24 years, with experience in Research and Development at General Mills and Pillsbury and as Vice President of Engi- neering at Pillsbury-Grand Met. He holds seven patents, is the author of several articles, and is co-author of Food Processing Operations and Scale-Up. Dr. Valentas received the “Food, Pharmaceutical, and Bioengineering Division Award” from AIChE in 1990 for outstanding contributions to research and development in the food processing industry and exemplary leadership in the application of chemical engineering principles to food processing. His current research interests include the application of biorefining principles to food processing wastes and production of amino acids via fermentation from thermal tolerant methlyotrophs. Copyright © 1997 CRC Press, LLC Contributors Ed Boehmer Ernesto Hernandez StarchTech, Inc. Food Protein Research Golden Valley, Minnesota and Development Center Texas A & M University David Bresnahan College Station, Texas Kraft Foods, Inc. Tarrytown, New York Ruben J. Hernandez School of Packaging Chin Shu Chen Michigan State University Citrus Research and Education Center East Lansing, Michigan University of Florida Lake Alfred, Florida Theodore P. Labuza Department of Food Science and Nutrition University of Minnesota Julius Chu St. Paul, Minnesota The Pillsbury Company Minneapolis, Minnesota Leon Levine Leon Levine & Associates, Inc. J. Peter Clark Plymouth, Minnesota Fluor Daniel, Inc. Chicago, Illinois Jorge E. Lozano PLAPIQUI Donald J. Cleland Universidad Nacional del Sur–CONICET Centre for Postharvest Bahia Blanca, Argentina and Refrigeration Research Massey University Jatal D. Mannapperuma Palmerston North, New Zealand California Institute of Food and Agricultural Research Guillermo H. Crapiste Department of Food Science and Technology PLAPIQUI University of California, Davis Universidad Nacional del Sur–CONICET Davis, California Bahia Blanca, Argentina Martha Muehlenkamp Brian E. Farkas Department of Food Science and Nutrition Department of Food Science University of Minnesota North Carolina State University St. Paul, Minnesota Raleigh, North Carolina Hosahilli S. Ramaswamy Daniel F. Farkas Department of Food Science Department of Food Science and Agricultural Chemistry and Technology MacDonald Campus of McGill University Oregon State University Ste. Anne de Bellevue, Quebec Corvallis, Oregon Canada Copyright © 1997 CRC Press, LLC Enrique Rotstein Petros S. Taoukis The Pillsbury Company Department of Chemical Engineering Minneapolis, Minnesota Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Technology I. Sam Saguy National Technical University of Athens Department of Biochemistry, Food Science, Athens, Greece and Nutrition Faculty of Agriculture Martin J. Urbicain The Hebrew University of Jerusalem PLAPIQUI Rehovot, Israel Universidad Nacional del Sur–CONICET Bahia Blanca, Argentina Dale A. Seiberling Seiberling Associates, Inc. Kenneth J. Valentas Roscoe, Illinois University of Minnesota St. Paul, Minnesota R. Paul Singh Department of Biological Joseph J. Warthesen and Agricultural Engineering and Department of Food Science Department of Food Science and Technology and Nutrition University of California, Davis University of Minnesota Davis, California St. Paul, Minnesota James F. Steffe John Henry Wells Department of Agricultural Engineering Department of Biological and Department of Food Science and Agricultural Engineering and Human Nutrition Louisiana State University Agricultural Michigan State University Center East Lansing, Michigan Baton Rouge, Louisiana Copyright © 1997 CRC Press, LLC Preface The food engineering discipline has been gaining increasing recognition in the food industry over the last three decades. Although food engineers formally graduated as such are relatively few, food engineering practitioners are an essential part of the food industry’s workforce. The significant contribution of food engineers to the industry is documented in the constant stream of new food products and their manufacturing processes, the capital projects to implement these processes, and the growing number of patents and publications that span this emerging profession. While a number of important food engineering books have been published over the years, the Handbook of Food Engineering Practice will stand alone for its emphasis on practical professional application. This handbook is written for the food engineer and food manufac- turer. The very fact that this is a book for industrial application will make it a useful source for academic teaching and research. A major segment of this handbook is devoted to some of the most common unit operations employed in the food industry. Each chapter is intended to provide terse, to-the-point descrip- tions of fundamentals, applications, example calculations, and, when appropriate, a review of economics. • The introductory chapter addresses one of the key needs in any food industry namely the design of pumping systems. This chapter provides mathematical procedures appropriate to liquid foods with Newtonian and non-Newtonian flow char- acteristics. Following the ubiquitous topic of pumping, several food preservation operations are considered. The ability to mathematically determine a food sterilization process has been the foundation of the food canning industry. During the last two decades, several new approaches have appeared in the literature that provide improved calculation procedures for determining food sterilization processes. • Chapter 2 provides an in-depth description of several recently developed methods with solved examples. • Chapter 3 is a comprehensive treatment of food freezing operations. This chapter examines the phase change problem with appropriate mathematical procedures that have proven to be most successful in predicting freezing times in food. The drying process has been used for millennia to preserve foods, yet a quantitative description of the drying process remains a challenging exercise. • Chapter 4 presents a detailed background on fundamentals that provide insight into some of the mechanisms involved in typical drying processes. Simplified mathematical approaches to designing food dryers are discussed. In the food industry, concentration of foods is most commonly carried out either with membranes or evaporator systems. During the last two decades, numerous developments have taken place in designing new types of membranes. • Chapter 5 provides an overview of the most recent advances and key information useful in designing membrane systems for separation and concentration purposes. • The design of evaporator systems is the subject of Chapter 6. The procedures given in this chapter are also useful in analyzing the performance of existing evaporators. • One of the most common computations necessary in designing any evaporator is calculating the material and energy balance. Several illustrative approaches on how to conduct material and energy balances in food processing systems are presented in Chapter 7. Copyright © 1997 CRC Press, LLC • After processing, foods must be packaged to minimize any deleterious changes in quality. A thorough understanding of the barrier properties of food packaging materials is essential for the proper selection and use of these materials in the design of packaging systems. A comprehensive review of commonly available packaging materials and their important properties is presented in Chapter 8. • Packaged foods may remain for considerable time in transport and in wholesale and retail storage. Accelerated storage studies can be a useful tool in predicting the shelf life of a given food; procedures to design such studies are presented in Chapter 9. • Among various environmental factors, temperature plays a major role in influencing the shelf life of foods. The temperature tolerance of foods during distribution must be known to minimize changes in quality deterioration. To address this issue, approaches to determine temperature effects on the shelf life of foods are given in Chapter 10. • In designing and evaluating food processing operations, a food engineer relies on the knowledge of physical and rheological properties of foods. The published literature contains numerous studies that provide experimental data on food properties. In Chapter 11, a comprehensive resource is provided on predictive methods to estimate physical and rheological properties. • The importance of physical and rheological properties in designing a food system is further illustrated in Chapter 12 for a dough processing system. Dough rheology is a complex subject; an engineer must rely on experimental, predictive, and mathematical approaches to design processing systems for manufacturing dough, as delineated in this chapter. The last five chapters in this handbook provide supportive material that is applicable to any of the unit operations presented in the preceding chapters. • For example, estimation of cost and profitability one of the key calculations that must be carried out in designing new processing systems. Chapter 13 provides useful methods for conducting cost/profit analyses along with illustrative examples. • As computers have become more common in the workplace, use of simulations and optimization procedures are gaining considerable attention in the food industry. Procedures useful in simulation and optimization are presented in Chapter 14. • In food processing, it is imperative that any design of a system adheres to a variety of sanitary guidelines. Chapter 15 includes a broad description of issues that must be considered to satisfy these important guidelines. • The use of process controllers in food processing is becoming more prevalent as improved sensors appear in the market. Approaches to the design and implementation of process controllers in food processing applications are discussed in Chapter 16. • Food engineers must rely on a number of basic sciences in dealing with problems at hand. An in-depth knowledge of food chemistry is generally regarded as one of the most critical. In Chapter 17, an overview of food chemistry with specific reference to the needs of engineers is provided. It should be evident that this handbook assimilates many of the key food processing operations. Topics not covered in the current edition, such as food extrusion, microwave processing, and other emerging technologies, are left for future consideration. While we realize that this book covers new ground, we hope to hear from our readers, to benefit from their experience in future editions. Enrique Rotstein R. Paul Singh Kenneth Valentas Copyright © 1997 CRC Press, LLC Table of Contents Chapter 1 Pipeline Design Calculations for Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids James F. Steffe and R. Paul Singh Chapter 2 Sterilization Process Engineering Hosahalli S. Ramaswamy, and R. Paul Singh Chapter 3 Prediction of Freezing Time and Design of Food Freezers Donald J. Cleland and Kenneth J. Valentas Chapter 4 Design and Performance Evaluation of Dryers Guillermo H. Crapiste and Enrique Rotstein Chapter 5 Design and Performance Evaluation of Membrane Systems Jatal D. Mannapperuma Chapter 6 Design and Performance Evaluation of Evaporation Chin Shu Chen and Ernesto Hernandez Chapter 7 Material and Energy Balances Brian E. Farkas and Daniel F. Farkas Chapter 8 Food Packaging Materials, Barrier Properties, and Selection Ruben J. Hernandez Chapter 9 Kinetics of Food Deterioration and Shelf-Life Prediction Petros S. Taoukis, Theodore P. Labuza, and I. Sam Saguy Chapter 10 Temperature Tolerance of Foods during Distribution John Henry Wells and R. Paul Singh Copyright © 1997 CRC Press, LLC