Handbook of Electroluminescent Materials

663 Pages·2004·244.689 MB·\663

by  D. R. Vij (Editor)

Handbook of Electroluminescent Materials
Series in Optics and Optoelectronics
Series Editors: R G W Brown, University of Nottingham, UK
E R Pike, Kings College, London, UK
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Series on Optics and Optoelectronics
Handbook of
Electroluminescent
Materials
Edited by
DR Vij
Department of Physics, Kurukshetra University,
Kurukshetra, India
First published 2004 by Institute of Physics Publishing
Published 2018 by Routledge
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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data are available
Cover Design: Victoria Le Billon
Typeset by Academic+ Technical, Bristol
ISBN 13: 978-0-7503-0923-3 (hbk)
Contents
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments
XV
1 Electroluminescence: an introduction 1
D Haranath, Virendra Shanker and D R Vij
1.1 Introduction
1
1.2 Fundamental physical processes 4
1.2.1 Atomic transitions 4
1.3 High-field EL 5
1.3.1 Powder phosphor EL 5
1.3.2 Alternating current powder EL 6
1.3.3 Direct current powder EL 11
1.4 Injection EL 14
1.4.1 EL mechanism 14
1.5 Thin-film EL 15
1.5.1 Direct current thin-film EL 16
1.5.2 Alternating current thin-film EL 16
1.6 Recent developments in TFEL displays 21
References 21
PART 1 II-IV GROUP MATERIALS 25
2 Zinc sulphide 27
Nigel Shepherd and Paul H Holloway
2.1 Introduction and historical perspective 27
2.2 Phosphor fundamentals 31
2.2.1 Fundamentals of atomic transitions 31
2.2.2 Luminescent centres 35
2.2.3 Zinc sulphide—the host 41
2.2.4 Luminescent centre-host lattice interactions 48
v
Contents
2.3 Zinc sulphide electroluminescent devices 56
2.3.1 Direct current thin-film devices 57
2.3.2 Alternating current thin-film devices 61
2.3.3 Direct current powder electroluminescence from
ZnS 107
2.3.4 Alternating current powder electroluminescence
from ZnS ПО
2.4 Summary 112
2.4.1 Practical approaches for enhancing luminance in
ZnS phosphors 112
2.4.2 ZnS devices in the FPD marketplace and current
trends 115
2.4.3 New applications for ZnS devices and materials 116
Acknowledgment 117
References 117
Zinc selenide and zinc telluride 124
M Godlewski, E Guziewicz and V Yu Ivanov
3.1 Introduction 124
3.2 Semiconductor-based monochromatic LEDs 125
3.2.1 Light emitting diodes 125
3.3 White light sources 127
3.3.1 Principles of white light sources 127
3.3.2 Basics of colour mixing 128
3.4 Semiconductor-based white light sources 132
3.4.1 III-V based white LEDs 132
3.4.2 ZnSe and/or ZnTe? 132
3.5 Niche applications 134
3.5.1 White emission from thin films of ZnSe 134
3.5.2 Blue anti-Stokes emission from TM-doped ZnSe 141
3.5.3 Infrared intra-shell emission in ZnSerCr 152
3.6 Summary 155
References 155
Cadmium chalcogenide nanocrystals 158
,
Stephen M Kelly Mary O'Neill and Tom Stirner
4.1 Introduction 158
4.2 Theory 159
4.3 Empirical pseudopotential method 160
4.3.1 Theory 160
4.3.2 CdTe nanospheres 161
4.3.3 CdTe nanorods 165
4.4 Effective-mass approximation 167
Contents vii
4.4.1 Theory 167
4.4.2 Post-growth tuning of energy levels 169
4.4.3 Polarized emission 172
4.5 Synthesis 173
4.5.1 Hybrid inorganic/organic LEDS 179
4.6 Conclusions 186
References 186
Alkaline earth sulphides 193
Virendra Shanker and Harish Chander
5.1 Introduction 193
5.2 Physical properties of EL emitting AES compounds 194
5.3 Thin film electroluminescence (TFEL) of alkaline earth
sulphides 198
5.4 Full colour EL phophors 209
5.5 Phosphors of commercial TFEL display devices 213
5.6 Phosphors for monochrome displays 214
5.7 Phosphors for colour displays 214
5.7.1 Blue-light emitting phosphors 214
5.7.2 Green-light emitting phosphors 214
5.7.3 Red-light emitting phosphors 215
5.7.4 White-emitting phosphors 215
References 216
Zinc oxide 217
Shashi Bhushan
6.1 Introduction 217
6.2 Preparation methods 217
6.2.1 Powders 217
6.2.2 Pellets 218
6.2.3 Thin films 218
6.2.4 Crystals 219
6.2.5 Nanocrystallites 220
6.3 Luminescence properties 221
6.3.1 General 221
6.3.2 Electrodes 232
6.3.3 Varistors 233
6.3.4 Ceramics 233
6.3.5 Hydrogenation 233
6.3.6 Excitonic 233
6.3.7 Mixed bases and other forms 235
6.3.8 Nanocrystallites 237
6.4 Applications and future scope 238
References 239
viii Contents
PART 2 III-V GROUP MATERIALS 243
7 Gallium arsenide and its ternary alloys (self-assembled quantum dots) 245
D Wasserman and S A Lyon
7.1 Introduction 245
7.2 Quantum dot growth 247
7.3 Carriers in quantum dots 254
7.3.1 Electronic structure 255
7.3.2 Optical transitions 261
7.3.3 Electron lifetimes 262
7.4 Electroluminescence from quantum dots 264
7.4.1 Near-infrared luminescence 264
7.4.2 Quantum dot lasers 264
7.4.3 Mid-infrared electroluminescence 272
7.4.4 Single dot luminescence and single photon
emitters using QDs 275
7.5 Conclusion 277
References 277
8 Gallium phosphide and its wide-hand gap ternary and
quaternary alloys 282
Alexander N Pikhtin and Olga L Lazarenkova
8.1 Introduction 282
8.2. Gallium phosphide 283
8.2.1. Lattice, physical-chemical properties and
technological data 283
8.2.2. Electronic properties, electrical conductivity,
impurities and defects 286
8.2.3 Optical properties 291
8.2.4 Luminescence 300
8.2.5 Device technology and applications 314
8.3 Ternary alloys 317
8.4 Quaternary alloys 329
8.5 Conclusion 341
Acknowledgments 341
References 341
9 Gallium nitride and related materials 348
M Godlewski and A Kozanecki
9.1 Introduction 348
9.2 Properties of buffer layers for GaN epitaxy 348
9.2.1 LT GaN buffer layer 349
9.3 Freestanding GaN layers for GaN epitaxy 354
9.3.1 Freestanding GaN layers—an alternative approach 355
Contents ix
9.4 GaN-based laser diodes 357
9.4.1 Homo-epitaxial laser diodes 358
9.4.2 Electron beam pumping 360
9.5 GaN doped with rare earth ions 376
9.5.1 Introduction 376
9.5.2 Lattice location studies of RE atoms in GaN 377
9.5.3 Emission of Er3+ ions in GaN 379
9.5.4 PL excitation spectroscopy of Er3_l~ in GaN 380
9.5.5 Analysis of Er site symmetry in GaN 383
References 387
PART 3 IV GROUP MATERIALS 391
10 Silicon and porous silicon 393
Bernard Gelloz and Nobuy oshi Koshida
10.1 Introduction 393
10.2 Background 395
10.2.1 Porous Si formation 395
10.2.2 Porous Si main characteristics 396
10.2.3 Porous Si photoluminescence 397
10.2.4 Definitions and requirements 398
10.3 EL from bulk Si and erbium 399
10.3.1 Bulk crystalline Si pn junction LEDs 399
10.3.2 Other EL devices based on bulk crystalline Si 403
10.3.3 Er-doped bulk Si and SiO* matrices 404
10.3.4 Er-doped Si nanoclusters 406
10.3.5 Other Er-doped Si-based devices 407
10.4 EL from low-dimensional Si structures 408
10.4.1 Arrays of Si nanocrystals and nanowires 409
10.4.2 Si-rich Si02 simple systems 411
10.4.3 Superlattices 414
10.5 Visible electroluminescence from PS 416
10.5.1 Overview 417
10.5.2 Porous Si in contact with a liquid 423
10.5.3 Differences between wet and solid-state EL 425
10.5.4 Devices including an as-formed PS layer 429
10.5.5 Porous Si formed from pn junctions 431
10.5.6 Partially-oxidized porous Si 433
10.5.7 Porous Si impregnated with other materials 437
10.5.8 Influence of the top contact 441
10.5.9 Porous Si microcavities 444
10.5.10 Porous Si stabilization (surface chemistry and
capping of porous Si) 447