Handbook of Crystal Growth. Thin Films and Epitaxy: Materials, Processes, and Technology. Volume III, Part B PDF
Preview Handbook of Crystal Growth. Thin Films and Epitaxy: Materials, Processes, and Technology. Volume III, Part B
Handbook of Crystal Growth Thin Films and Epitaxy: Basic Techniques VOLUME III, Part A Second Edition Editor-in-Chief Tatau Nishinga The University of Tokyo Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan Volume Editor Thomas F. Kuech University of Wisconsin- Madison Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering Madison, WI USA Amsterdam(cid:129)Boston(cid:129)Heidelberg(cid:129)London NewYork(cid:129)Oxford(cid:129)Paris(cid:129)SanDiego SanFrancisco(cid:129)Singapore(cid:129)Sydney(cid:129)Tokyo Handbook of Crystal Growth Thin Films and Epitaxy: Materials, Processes, and Technology VOLUME III, Part B Second Edition Editor-in-Chief Tatau Nishinga The University of Tokyo Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan Volume Editor Thomas F. Kuech University of Wisconsin- Madison Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering Madison, WI USA Amsterdam(cid:129)Boston(cid:129)Heidelberg(cid:129)London NewYork(cid:129)Oxford(cid:129)Paris(cid:129)SanDiego SanFrancisco(cid:129)Singapore(cid:129)Sydney(cid:129)Tokyo Elsevier Radarweg29,POBox211,1000AEAmsterdam,TheNetherlands TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UK 225WymanStreet,Waltham,MA02451,USA Firstedition1993 Secondedition2015 Copyright(cid:1)2015,1993ElsevierB.V.Allrightsreserved. Thecrystalsonthefrontcoverarehigh-qualitysyntheticdiamondcrystalsgrownbySumitomoElectricIndustries,LTDbya temperaturegradientmethodunderhighpressureandhightemperature.Theyellowishcrystalsareordinarilysynthetic diamondscontainingnitrogenimpurityofseveraltensofppm(typeIb).Thecolorlessonesarehigh-puritysyntheticdiamonds freeofimpurities(typeIIa).Thesizeofthelargesthigh-puritycrystal(lowerleft)isabout12mmindiagonallength.Thephoto wasprovidedbyDr.HitoshiSumiya. Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,including photocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher. Detailsonhowtoseekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthePublisher’spermissionspoliciesandourarrangementswith organizationssuchastheCopyrightClearanceCenterandtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefoundatourwebsite:www. elsevier.com/permissions. ThisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyrightbythePublisher(otherthanasmay benotedherein). Notices Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearchandexperiencebroadenourunderstanding, changesinresearchmethods,professionalpractices,ormedicaltreatmentmaybecomenecessary. Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgeinevaluatingandusinganyinformation, methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribedherein.Inusingsuchinformationormethodstheyshouldbemindfuloftheir ownsafetyandthesafetyofothers,includingpartiesforwhomtheyhaveaprofessionalresponsibility. Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,oreditors,assumeanyliabilityforanyinjury and/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationof anymethods,products,instructions,orideascontainedinthematerialherein. BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress SETVolumeISBN:978-0-444-63304-0 Volume3,PartA–978-0-444-63339-2 Volume3,PartB–978-0-444-63338-5 ForinformationonallElsevierpublications visitourwebsiteatwww.store.elsevier.com PrintedandboundintheUK. General Preface The history of crystal growth is long as those of the universe and the earth. Meteorites contain pyrites and olivine crystals which indicate these crystals were grown when the planets were born. Crystals naturally produced are used as gems from the early time of the human history. In Exodus, it is written that breast-piece was decorated by ruby, emerald, sapphire,amethyst, and othergems. Therearealotofcrystalsaroundus.Asexamples,wecanfindsnowflakesfallingdown from the sky, ice crystals in a lake in winter, salt and sugar crystals in the pots of our kitchen. But, it was after the invention of point contact and junction transistors, respectivelyin1947and1948,thattheindustrypaidagreatinterestonthecrystalgrowth. Withoutthegrowthofhighpurityandhighlyperfectsingle-crystalsemiconductor,atthat time of Ge, theinvention ofthetransistors will never happen. It is well known that the modern information society will be not realized without electronic and optical devices. One finds large-scale integrated circuits of Si in every computer from laptop to super computers. For high speed and mass transmission of information, compound semiconductor devices are indispensable. Thesedevicesarefabricatedalmostallbyusingsinglecrystalsofsemiconductorsand oxides.Whenwelook intothehistory ofthedevices, wealwaysseethataninventionof crystal growth technique makes it possible to bring out new device. As we saw, the inventionoftransistorwaspossibleonlyafterthegrowthofhigh-qualityGesinglecrystal. The growth of large-diameter dislocation-free Si crystal has enabled the production of large-scale integrated circuit. Due to the invention of liquid-phase epitaxy, it became possible to realize light-emitting diode (LED) and laser diode (LD) in real use. Drastic technologicalimprovementinhighlylatticemismatchheteroepitaxymadeitpossibleto realizebluewultravioletLEDandLDanditcanbesaidthatthesuccessinthegrowthof high-quality nitride semiconductor gave the blue light all over the world. Hence, we should understand that new technology of crystal growth has always created new elec- tronic and optical devices. Itisextremelygoodnewsforthecommunityofcrystalgrowththat2014NobelPrizein Physics was awarded to Professors Isamu Akasaki, Hiroshi Amano and Shuji Nakamura for the invention of efficient blue light-emitting diodes which has enabled bright and energy-saving white light sources. This invention is based on the growth of nitride semiconductors employing a low-temperature buffer layer on sapphire substrate in heteroepitaxy. We are happy that Professor Hiroshi Amano, one of the winners, is con- tributing to this Handbook as anauthor ofChapter 16 inVol. IIIA. ix x GENERAL PREFACE The first edition of the Handbook of Crystal Growth was edited by D.T.J. Hurle. This Handbook was composed of three volumes and published in 1993–1994. The present secondeditionoftheHandbookalsoconsistsofthreevolumes.Eachvolumewasedited byseparate editors.VolumeIis edited by T.Nishinaga andthe volume coversthebasic aspectsofcrystal growth.InVolumeIa,fundamentalsandkineticsofcrystalgrowthare describedandin1b,advancedproblemsoftransportandstabilityarediscussed.Volume IIiseditedbyP.Rudolphandthisvolumecoversbulkcrystalgrowth.VolumeIIapresents basic technologies of bulk growth and IIb does growth mechanism and dynamics. VolumeIIIwaseditedbyT.F.Kuechandthevolumecoversthinfilmgrowthandepitaxy. Volume3adiscussesbasictechniquesandIIIbdoesgrowthmechanismsanddynamics. Present Handbook project was created in March, 2011 and six advisors were appointed.TheyareT.F.Kuech,G.B.Stringfellow,J.B.Mullin,J.J.Derby,R.Fornari,and K. H.Ploog.Iam very muchgratefulfor their important and valuable suggestions. Finally, all editors would like to express their sincere thanks to Shannon Stanton, Elsevier,for herstrongand well cared supportto this work. Tatau Nishinaga (Editor inChief) Preface to Volume III VolumeIIIoftheHandbookhasboththeenablingscienceandkeyapplicationsofepitaxy and thin film formation. Epitaxy is the formation of a crystal, typical in thin film form, through deposition on a substrate wherein the film and the substrate have well-defined structural registry. Epitaxy is key to many of our advanced technologies associated with electronics, optics, optoelectronics, energy, and a range of specialty applications. As a crystal growth process, epitaxy draws upon the basic science underpinning all forms of crystalgrowthasdiscussedinVolumesIandII.VolumeIIIconsistsoftwoseparateparts. Volume IIIA generally describes the underlying principles behind many of the epitaxial growthtechniquesincurrentuse.Theprocessofepitaxialgrowthcantakeplacefroma solid,liquid,orvaporphaseenvironment.Thevaporphaseenvironmentcanspanfrom ultra-high vacuum to well above atmospheric pressure. While each of these crystal growthenvironmentsissomewhatunique,partofourcurrentunderstandingiscommon to all of these. Volume IIIB focuses on specific materials systems or techniques classes thatprovidematerialsthatareofdirectcurrenttechnologicalimportanceorproducevery particular nano- or microstructures. The development of these materials is usually throughapreferredepitaxialgrowthtechnique;however,multipletechniqueshavebeen used for almost all materials, depending on materials composition, structure, and propertiesrequired. In Volume IIIA, Chapter 1 discusses the use of epitaxial techniques and materials impacting the growingareaof energy-relatedapplications. Inmany ways, energy appli- cations encompass many of the structures and materials used in other technologies. Commercially,vaporphaseprocessinghasbeenextensivelyexploitedduetoitsabilityto formepitaxialmaterialsoverlargeareaswithaneasilycontrolledeffluentwastestream. Chapters 2–6 describe the two most commonly used paper phase techniques and the underlying transport and chemical kinetic issues associated with them. Metal organic vapor phaseepitaxy is particularly importantfor its use inthe formation ofcommercial optoelectronic devices such as light-emitting diodes and epitaxial solar cells. Molecular beam epitaxy, using a variety of sources, is described in Chapters 7 and 9, with the underlying principles and phenomenology presented in Chapter 8. Other growth envi- ronmentsarealsousedtoproduceepitaxymaterialssuchasgrowthfromtheliquidphase thatisdescribedinChapter10andfromthesolidphasedescribedinChapter11.While epitaxial growth has been typically associated with the formation of a film on a planar substrate, the development of three-dimensional structures, such as quantum dots, wires, rods, as well as other interesting and useful morphological structures, is increas- ingly important. The approaches to achieving these structures are discussed in xi xii PREFACE TO VOLUME III Chapters12–16.Chapter16isofparticularnoteasitfeaturesworkbyoneofthewinners of the 2014 Nobel Prize in Physics that was highlighted by the Nobel committee. These various approaches have been used to incorporate such three-dimensional features within adevice structure to achieve new types and levels of performance. Volume IIIB focuses on specific techniques used in epitaxial growth to extend the rangeofgrowthconditions,reducedefects,andcharacterizetheelectronicandstructural propertiesoftheepitaxialstructure.Inaddition,importantspecificmaterialssystemsare discussed as both examples of epitaxial growth and to highlight these technologically important processes. Chapter 17 discusses the use of transitional epitaxial structures to provide surfaces possessing a lattice parameter not easily achievable by bulk crystal growthtechniques.Anaspectoftheseepitaxialgrowthprocessesallowingavarietyoflow stabilityormetastablematerialstobegrownreliesonthemodulationorrapidswitching ofgrowthsources,allowingatomiclayercontroloverthefilmdevelopment,aspresented in Chapter 18. Chapters 19–21 present aspects of materials properties and character- ization. During and after these films are synthesized, rigorous and precise character- ization,typicallyutilizingX-raydiffraction,opticaltechniques,andothertoolstoevaluate structuralandelectronicproperties,areemployed.Theremainingchaptersfocusonthe detailedconsiderationofacross-sectionofmaterials.Epitaxyhasnowbeenappliedtoa wide variety of materials from organic molecules (Chapter 27), refractory semi- conductors,suchasnitrides,SiC,anddiamond(Chapters25,26,31,32),oxides(Chapter 28), two-dimensional materials (Chapters 29 and 30), and more conventional materials (Chapters22–24). Together, these chapters present a broad and deep picture of the processes and applications of this important form of crystal growth. As a technology, its application fieldswillcontinuetogrow andextendtoamorediversesetofmaterials andcontrolof the physical structure and morphology, allowing near-atomic control over the material structure. ThomasF. Kuech Editor HB ofCrystal Growth, VolumeIIIA and IIIB List of Contributors Hiroshi Amano Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Akasaki Research Center, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan Yamina André ClermontUniversité,UniversitéBlaisePascal,InstitutPascal, Clermont- Ferrand, France; CNRS, UMR 6602, Aubière, France Hajime Asahi The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research, Osaka University, MIHOGAKA, IBARAKI, Osaka, Japan John E. Ayers Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA Michael J. Aziz Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Cambridge, MA, USA Bhavtosh Bansal Dept. of Physical Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata, India Arnab Bhattacharya Dept. of Condensed Matter Physics and Materials Science, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai, India Robert M. Biefeld Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA A.A. Bol Department of Applied Physics, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands April S. Brown Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Pratt School of Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA Robert Cadoret Clermont Université, Université Blaise Pascal, Institut Pascal, Clermont-Ferrand, France; CNRS, UMR 6602, Aubière, France Jeffrey G. Cederberg Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA Xiaogang Chen Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA Enrique D. Cobas Materials Science and Technology Division, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, SW Washington, DC, USA xiii xiv LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS James J. Coleman Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA Armin Dadgar Institute of Experimental Physics, Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany Paul G. Evans Materials Science and Engineering, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, USA Roberto Fornari Department of Physics and Earth Sciences, University of Parma, Parma, Italy Hiroshi Fujioka Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo D. Kurt Gaskill U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC, USA Evelyne Gil Clermont Université, Université Blaise Pascal, Institut Pascal, Clermont- Ferrand, France; CNRS, UMR 6602, Aubière, France Mark S. Goorsky UCLA,HSSEASSchoolofEngineering&AppliedSciences,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Los Angeles, CA, USA Brett C. Johnson School of Physics, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia W.M.M. Kessels Department of Applied Physics, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands Jeong Dong Kim Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA Tsunenobu Kimoto Department of Electronic Science and Engineering, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan H.C.M. Knoops Department of Applied Physics, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands G. Koblmüller MaterialsDepartment, Universityof California, SantaBarbara, CA, USA; WalterSchottkyInstitutand PhysikDepartment, TechnischeUniversitätMünchen, Garching, Germany Daniel D. Koleske Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA Alois Krost Institute of Experimental Physics, Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xv Thomas F. Kuech Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, USA J.R. Lang Materials Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA; Electrical Engineering Department, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA Hongdong Li State Key Laboratory of Superhard Materials, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China Xiuling Li Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Micro and Nanotechnology Laboratory, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA Maria Losurdo NationalCouncilofResearch,InstituteofInorganicMethodologiesand of Plasmas, CNR-IMIP, via Orabona 4, 70126 Bari, Italy Fumihiro Matsukura WPI-Advanced Institute for Materials Research, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan; Center for Spintronics Integrated Systems, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan; Laboratory for Nanoelectronics and Spintronics, Research Institute of Electrical Communication, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan Michael G. Mauk College of Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA Jeffrey C. McCallum School of Physics, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia Kathleen M. McCreary NRC Postdoctoral Fellow Residing at U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, SW Washington, DC, USA Xin Miao Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Micro and Nanotechnology Laboratory, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA Osamu Nakatsuka Department of Crystalline Materials Science, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan Nathan Newman Materials Program, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA Tatau Nishinaga The University of Tokyo, Japan Hideo Ohno WPI-AdvancedInstituteforMaterialsResearch,TohokuUniversity,Sendai, Japan; Center for Spintronics Integrated Systems, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan; Laboratory for Nanoelectronics and Spintronics, Research Institute of Electrical Communication, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan S.E. Potts Department of Applied Physics, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
The list of books you might like
