Handbook of Coherent-Domain Optical Methods: Biomedical Diagnostics, Environmental Monitoring, and Materials Science

1341 Pages·2013·43.528 MB·English

by  Dmitry A. Zimnyakov (auth.), Valery V. Tuchin (eds.)

Handbook of Coherent-Domain
Optical Methods

Valery V. Tuchin
Editor
Handbook of
Coherent-Domain
Optical Methods
Biomedical Diagnostics, Environmental
Monitoring, and Materials Science
Second Edition
With714Figuresand27Tables
Editor
ValeryV.Tuchin
DepartmentofOpticsandBiophotonics
SaratovStateUniversity,and
PrecisionMechanicsandControl
InstituteoftheRussianAcademyofSciences
Saratov,RussianFederation
OptoelectronicsandMeasurementTechniquesLaboratory
UniversityofOulu
Oulu,Finland
ISBN978-1-4614-5175-4 ISBN 978-1-4614-5176-1(eBook)
ISBNBundle978-1-4614-5177-8(printandelectronicbundle)
DOI10.1007/978-1-4614-5176-1
SpringerNewYorkHeidelbergDordrechtLondon
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2012952161
1stedition:#KluwerAcademicPublishers2004
2ndedition:#SpringerScienceþBusinessMediaNewYork2013
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Preface
This handbook deals with laser and coherent-domain methods as applied to bio-
medical diagnostics, environmental monitoring, and materials inspection. It is
a second edition of the two-volume Handbook of Coherent-Domain Optical
Methods for Biomedical Diagnostics, Environmental and Material Science
publishedbyKluwerAcademicPublishersin2004.
Theappearanceofthisbookwasstimulatedbytherecentrapidprogressinnovel
photonicstechnologiesonthebasisofdiodelasers,broadbandfemtosecondlasers
(Ti: Sapphire or Cr: F€orsterite), light-emitting diodes (LEDs), and superlumi-
nescencediodes(SLDs).Suchtechnologiesareapplicableinmanyfields,namely,
biomedical, environmental, and material diagnostics and monitoring. The main
reason that prompted me to edit this book is my many years co-chairing of the
Conference on Optical Coherence Tomography and Coherence Domain Optical
MethodsinBiomedicine(SPIEPhotonicsWestSymposia,SanJose/SanFrancisco,
USA)togetherwithJosephIzattandJamesFujimoto,andtheintensiveworkofmy
research group in collaboration with many leading groups throughout the world.
These activities provided the possibility of inviting world-renowned experts to
writethebookchapters.
The problem of light interaction with scattering media, including biological
tissues, is of great interest in medicine, environmental studies, and industry, and
therefore it is often discussed in the monographic literature [1–15]. Since the
publicationofthefirsteditionofthehandbook,anumberofnewbooks,handbooks,
and tutorials were published (see [16–57]). This expanded edition is genetically
linkedwiththementioned literature.However,thishandbookhassomeimportant
specific features making it different from these other books. In particular, for the
firsttimeinonebookavarietyofcoherent-domainopticalmethodsarediscussedin
the framework of various applications, which are characterized by a strong light
scattering.Readersareprovidedwiththeopportunitytolearnthefundamentalsof
light interaction with random media and to obtain an overview on basic research
containing the latest results on coherent and polarization properties of light
scattered by random media, including tissues and blood, on speckle formation in
multiplescatteringmedia,andonothernondestructiveinteractionsofcoherentlight
with rough surfaces and tissues. Readers can then understand the principles of
coherentdiagnosticstechniquesaspresentedinmanyotherchaptersofthisbook.
v
vi Preface
This handbook is divided into six parts – Part 1: Speckle and Polarization
Technologies (▶Chaps. 1–5); Part 2: Holography, Interferometry, Diffractive
Imaging, and Wavefront Measurements (▶Chaps. 6–11); Part 3: Light Scattering
Methods (▶Chaps. 12–15); Part 4: Optical Coherence Tomography
(▶Chaps. 16–26); Part 5: Microscopy (▶Chaps. 27 and ▶28); and Part 6:
Applications(▶Chaps.29–31).
Therecentandprospectivemethodsofcoherentandpolarizationopticalimag-
ing,tomography,andspectroscopy,includingpolarization-sensitiveopticalcoher-
ent tomography, polarization diffusion wave spectroscopy, and elastic and quasi-
elastic light scattering spectroscopy and imaging, are presented. The holographic,
interferential,coherentlightscattering,anddiffractivetechniquesinapplicationto
diagnostics of tissues and turbid materials are also discussed. The basics of
wavefrontmeasurements,aberrationandadaptiveopticsinapplicationtoophthal-
mology, are given in two chapters. Eleven chapters describe various aspects of
optical coherence tomography (OCT) – a very new and growing field of coherent
optics.Therefore,thesechaptersserveasagoodadditionandupdatetoHandbook
of Optical Coherence Tomography [13] and the recent Springer book Optical
Coherence Tomography: Technologyand Applications [30]. Readerswill find the
chapter on laser scanning confocal microscopy, which is characterized by recent
extraordinaryresultsofinvivoimaging,useful.RamanandOCTmicroscopiesas
toolsfortissuesandvariousmaterialsinspectionarealsoanalyzedinthisbook.
In comparison with the first edition, this edition is significantly updated with
a few new chapters that more or less replace former chapters of authors who no
longer work in the field, as well as a few chapters that cover new research fields
suchasdigitalholographicmicroscopy,Fouriertransformlightscatteringmethod,
coherent diffractive imaging, wavefront sensing, aberration measurement and
adaptive optics in ophthalmology, and laser remote sensing in medicine and
environmentalmonitoring.
Thisbookrepresentsavaluablecontributionbywell-knownexpertsinthefield
of coherent-domain light scattering technologies for diagnostics of random media
andbiologicaltissues.Thecontributorsofthisvolumearedrawnacrosstheglobe
from countries such as Australia, Austria, Bulgaria, Canada, China, Denmark,
Finland,Germany,Italy,theNetherlands,NewZealand,Russia,Sweden,theUK,
Ukraine,andtheUSA.
Volume1consistsof15chapters.▶Chapter1describestheapproachestomultiple
scatteringmediacharacterizationonthebasisofcorrelationandpolarizationanalysis
of scattered radiation, including fundamentals of diffusing-wave and polarization
spectroscopies. Results of basic research on speckle and polarization phenomena,
industrial and biomedical applications of the speckle correlation, and polarization
diagnostictechniquesintheframeworkoftheiruniversalityarealsopresented.
Newfeasibilitiesformetrologyofcoherenceandpolarizationoflightfieldswith
consideration of novel approaches to singular optics are dealt in ▶Chap. 2. The
authors discuss new techniques based on the studies of completely or partially
coherent/polarized complex fields that can be of use in optical correlation
diagnostics.
Preface vii
In▶Chap.3,optical techniquesforthe studyoftissue structuresareclassified
on the basis of polarization and correlation characteristics for real object fields of
tissue samples and their images. The authors discuss novel approaches to the
analysisoftissueopticalimagesbasedonpolarization,interference,andcorrelation
characterizationofstructuresassociatedwiththetissuephysiologicalstate.
▶Chapter4describesthediffusingwavespectroscopy(DWS)methodologyand
its application to noninvasive quantitative monitoring of blood microcirculation
important for diabetes studies, pharmacological intervention for failing surgical
skinflapsorreplants,assessingburndepth,diagnosingatheroscleroticdisease,and
investigationofmechanismsofphotodynamictherapyincancertreatment.
In ▶Chap. 5, the authors introduce a laser speckle imaging (LSI) method for
dynamic,high-resolutionmonitoringofcerebralbloodflow(CBF)whichiscrucial
for studying the normal and pathophysiologic conditions of brain metabolism.
Three LSI data processing frameworks based on graphic processing unit (GPU),
digitalsignalprocessor(DSP),andfiledprogrammablearray(FPGA)arediscussed.
By illuminating the cortex with laser light and imaging the resulting speckle
pattern,relativeCBFimageswithtensofmicronsspatialandmillisecondtemporal
resolutionwereobtained.
▶Chapter6presentsmethodsfordigitalholographicmicroscopy(DHM)which
provide label-free, multi-focus quantitative phase imaging of living cells. The
DHM instrumentation and numerical processing of digitally captured holograms
areexplainedinthischapter.Theuseofpartialcoherentlightandmulti-wavelength
approachesarealsodiscussed.ThischapterdemonstratesthatDHMcanbeusedfor
automatedtrackingofmigratingcellsandcellthickness/refractiveindexmonitor-
inganddetermination,aswellasforlabel-freeanalysisinfluidics.
Theauthorsof▶Chap.7discusstheconceptthatdiagnosisofacertaindisease
(e.g.,cancer)isbasedonmodificationofoneofthelight(scattering)propertiesand
translationofthatopticalinformationintodataofclinicalrelevance.Thebasicsof
tissue scattering and analysis of existing scattering methods, as well as Fourier
transform light scattering, a method recently developed by the authors, are
presentedinthischapter.
▶Chapter 8 is an overview of the principles and basic concepts of coherent
diffractiveimaging(CDI),anoveltechniqueforinspectingmatterfromnanometric
down to picometric resolution. The plane wave CDI, focused beam Fresnel CDI,
BraggCDI,keyholeCDI,andTEMCDIexperimentsarediscussed.
In ▶Chap. 9, it is shown that wavefront sensing or aberration measurement in
theeyeisakeyprobleminrefractivesurgeryandvisioncorrectionwithlaser;the
origins of laser-based wavefront sensing technologies and new opportunities for
their wider implementation in optometry and vision correction with customized
contactandintraocularlensesareanalyzedanddiscussed.
▶Chapter10describescurrenttrendsinlaserremotesensingandlaserDoppler
velocimetry, including principles and optical systems of wind sensing, flow and
vibrationmeasurementandmapping.CoherentDoppleranddirectdetectionlidars
with applications for environmental monitoring and flow velocity and vibration
measurementsinbiomedicinearepresented.
viii Preface
The impact of several important factors, such as speckle modulation, temporal
aberrations,andanisoplanaticeffects,ontheperformanceofophthalmicdiagnostic
systemswithadaptiveopticscompensationofhumaneyeaberrationisinvestigated
in ▶Chap. 11. The authors also consider the implementation of a fundus camera
withadaptiveoptics.
▶Chapter12reviewslightscatteringspectroscopictechniquesinwhichcoher-
enteffectsarecriticalbecausetheydefinethestructureofthespectrum.Particularly
in the case of elastic light scattering, the targets themselves, such as aerosol
particlesinenvironmentalscienceorcellsandsubcellularorganellesinbiomedical
applications,playtheroleofmicroscopicopticalresonators.InthecaseofRaman
spectroscopy, the spectrum is created due to light scattering from vibrations in
moleculesoropticalphononsinsolids.
TheprinciplesofspeckleandDopplermeasurements,aswellasparticleimage
velocimetryareconsideredin▶Chap.13.Theauthorsdiscussthebasicphysicsof
speckle microscopy, analyze the outputcharacteristics ofdynamic speckle micro-
scope for measurements of parameters of biological flows, provide in vivo mea-
surements of velocity of blood and lymph flows in microvessels using speckle-
microscopic and cross-correlation techniques, and show the difficulties of the
absolutevelocitymeasurements.
In▶Chap.14,thepossibilitytodiagnoseocularandsystemicdiseasesthrough
theeyeisdemonstrated.Recentprogressinquasi-elasticlightscattering(QELS)is
described from a laboratory technique routinely used in the characterization of
macromolecular dispersions to novel QELS instrumentation which has become
compact, more sensitive, flexible, and easy to use. These developments have
made QELS an important tool in ophthalmic research where diseases can be
detectedearlyandnoninvasivelybeforetheclinicalsymptomsappear.
TheMonteCarlosimulationprogramdevelopedformodelingoflightscattering
inturbidmediaisdescribedin▶Chap.15.Variousoptionsforlighttransportand
scattering, reflection and refraction at boundaries, light sources and detection,
and some special features, like laser Doppler velocimetry, photoacoustics, and
frequency-modulationscattering,aredescribed.
Volume 2 presents a very new and growing field of coherent optics: optical
coherence tomography (OCT). Various aspects of OCT techniques and applica-
tions,particularlythoseusedinbiomedicine,arediscussed.Readersalsowillfind
the description of laser scanning confocal microscopy, which is characterized by
recentextraordinaryresultsoninvivoimaging,tobeinformative.OCTendoscopy
and microscopy as tools for tissues and materials inspection are also analyzed in
thisvolume.
In comparison with the first edition, significant updates will be found together
with a few new chapters on basic research and applications of OCT, and a new
sectiononapplicationswiththreechaptersonMuellermatrixpolarimetryapplica-
tionstomaterialscience,medicine,andenvironmentalmonitoring,nonlinearlaser
fluorescencespectroscopyofnaturalorganiccompounds,andtriplet-tripletannihi-
lation-assisted upconversion as an optical tool for probing physical parameter of
materials.
Preface ix
The fundamentals of OCT, methods providing enhanced probing depth and
higher contrast, as well as brief descriptions of applications in medicine, biology,
andmaterialscience,arepresentedin▶Chap.16.Theimpactofmultiplescattering
in tissues on the OCT imaging performance is analyzed. The developments and
mechanismsforreducingtheoverwhelmingmultiplescatteringeffectsandimprov-
ing imaging capabilities by the use of optical immersion technique are discussed.
A novel technique based on the use of biocompatible and hyperosmotic chemical
agentstoimpregnatethetissueandtoenhancetheOCTimagesisdescribed.
Analyticalandnumericalmodelsfordescribingthelightpropagationinscatter-
ing samples imaged by OCT systems are given in ▶Chap. 17. Analytical and
numericalmodelsbasedontheextendedHuygens-Fresnelprincipleandadvanced
Monte Carlo technique are derived and used for calculating the OCT signal. For
improvement of OCT images, the so-called true-reflection algorithm in which the
OCTsignalmaybecorrectedfortheattenuationcausedbyscatteringisdeveloped
andverifiedexperimentallyandbyMonteCarlomodeling.AnovelmethodofOCT
imaging is proposed on the basis of derived Wigner phase-space distribution
function.
The so-called en face OCT, which delivers slices in the tissue of coherence
length thickness with an orientation similar to that of confocal microscopy is
presented in ▶Chap. 18. The versatile operation in A, B, C scanning regimes;
simultaneous OCT and confocal imaging; and simultaneous OCT imaging at
differentdepthsareconsidered.B-scanandC-scanimagesfromdifferenttypesof
tissues are presented. A number of OCT innovations, such as adaptive optics-
assisted en face OCT/CM(SLO), coherence-gated wavefront sensors, en face
OCT imaging with adjustable depth resolution, and 3D imaging of tissue and en
facenon-scanningsystems,canbefoundinthischapter.
The implementation of a real-time fiber-based polarization-sensitive OCT
(PS-OCT) system, the associated behavior of polarization states in single-mode
fibers, and optimal polarization modulation schemes are described in ▶Chap. 19.
The principle of Stokes parameters determination in OCT, processing of PS-OCT
signals to extract polarization properties of tissue, such as birefringence, optical
axis orientation, and diattenuation, and results of in vivo determination of skin
birefringence and birefringence of the retinal nerve fiber layer for glaucoma
detectionarediscussed.
▶Chapter20describesanoninvasiveopticalmethodfortomographicimaging
of in vivo tissue structure and hemodynamics with high spatial resolution. The
principles of D-OCT, system design and implementation, and clinical application
are described. The recent advances in imaging speed, spatial resolution, and
velocity sensitivity as well as potential applications of D-OCT for mapping of
3-Dmicrovasculaturefortumordiagnosisandangiogenesisstudiesarediscussed.
Doppler OCT signals for low and high scattering regimes are analyzed in
▶Chap.21.AMonteCarlosimulationisproposedfor descriptionoftheDoppler
OCT signal which allows the readers to analyze the distortions in the measured
Doppler OCT flow profile connected with the multiplicity of light scattering.
Simulationsarecomparedwithphantomandbloodmeasurements.
x Preface
OCTmicrovascularimagingandquantification isthetopicof▶Chap.22with
discussionoffundamentalsofphase-resolvedandpower-basedmethods,andexog-
enouscontrastagents.ExamplesofmicrovascularOCTimaging,withemphasison
treatmentmonitoringandtissueresponseassessment,arediscussed.
Theultrahighresolution,ultrahighspeed,andwide-fieldOCTsystemforcorneal
and retinal imaging is described in ▶Chap. 23. The authors demonstrate unique
capabilitiesofthesystemthatincludethethicknessdeterminationofthetearfilm,
cornealepithelium,andBowman’slayeroverawidefieldofview,aswellashigh-
resolutionretinalmicroscopy.
▶Chapter24discussesthetheoreticalissuesofOCTimagingonthebasisofthe
wave and energy approaches, and presents the development of polarization
maintaining fiber optical elements for the OCT Michelson interferometer and
variousmodificationsofOCTsuchas“two-color,”3D,cross-polarized,andendo-
scopicOCTmodalities.ItalsosummarizesclinicalapplicationsofOCT,discusses
criteriaofnorm and pathology, diagnostic value, and clinical indications in OCT.
Compression of tissues and their impregnation by chemical agents are used for
improvement of OCT images. An effective mathematical algorithm for
postprocessingofOCTimagesaccountingfortissuescatteringisdemonstrated.
The development and innovations of OCT needle-probe technologies are
reviewed in ▶Chap. 25. Several different clinical applications, including demar-
cation of margins of breast cancer tumor and lung imaging, demonstrate OCT
needle-probecapabilitiesforopticalbiopsy.
The authors of ▶Chap. 26 discovered that OCT is a well-suited imaging
modalityforconductingpermeationtrialstoquantifydiffusivityofmoleculesand
particlesthroughhumanandanimalvasculartissue.Itwasdemonstratedthatsuch
studies could improve the understanding of the penetration and accumulation of
lipoproteinsinarterialwallandthuscouldhelpinthepreventionandtreatmentof
atherosclerosis.
▶Chapter27discussesthedevelopmentofacompactopticalcoherencemicro-
scope (OCM) with ultrahigh axial (3.4 mm) and lateral (3.9 mm) resolution for
imaginginternalstructuresofbiologicaltissuesatthecellularlevel.Suchresolution
is achieved due to combined broadband radiation of two spectrally shifted SLDs
andimplementationthedynamicfocusconceptwhichallowsforin-depthscanning
ofacoherencegateandbeamwaistsynchronously.Resultsofatheoreticalinves-
tigationofOCMaxialandlateralresolutiondegradationcausedbylightscattering
intissuesarealsopresented.
The principles and instrumentation of confocal scanning laser microscopy
(CSLM) are described in ▶Chap. 28. It discusses reflectance-mode CSLM
(rCSLM), where the images are based on the scattering properties of the cell or
tissue. The mechanisms of image contrast and rCSLM application to study tissue
propertiesareconsidered.
▶Chapter 29 describes the fundamentals of polarized beam interaction with
naturalscenesandinformativepolarimetricidentifiersofobjectsofvariousnatures.
It presents the Mueller matrix ideology. The multiplicative and additive matrix
models of deterministic and depolarizing objects are discussed. Several