Table Of Content

Handbook of Civil Society and Social Movements in Small States This volume is unique because of its focus on small states. There are many studies on civil society and social movements, but none that specifically deal with this category of countries. As is well known, small states have particular characteristics, including a limited ability to reap the benefits of economies of scale, a high degree of exposure to forces outside their control, and the proximity of politicians to the voters, often leading to clientelistic relationships and patronage networks. The small island developing states have the additional problem of high environmental vulnerability, with some also dealing with disproportionate ecological footprints. These factors have a bearing on the organization and per- formance of civil society organizations and social movements, as explained in several chapters of this book. The volume is organized in three parts, dealing with aspects of civil society and social moments in small states in the political, social and environmental spheres, respectively. Various definitions of civil society are proposed in the chapters, but most authors associate the term with organized groups, operating in the interest of citizens, independently of government and commercial business, including various forms of non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Civil society also encompasses social movements, which are considered to be loosely organized collective campaigns in pursuit of social goals. These two terms are sometimes used interchangeably; however, some authors argue that social movements tend to engage in ‘contentious politics’ including protests, while NGOs engage through more organized and institutional routes. Lino Briguglio is a Professor of Economics and a member of the board of the Islands and Small States at the University of Malta. He has authored several publications on small states. Michael Briguglio is a senior lecturer in the Department of Sociology at the University of Malta. He has published various scholarly works on environmental sociology, social movements and politics. Sheila Bunwaree is a scholar-activist with two decades of teaching and research experience. She has published extensively in the field of gender, governance and development. Claire Slatter is a retired academic and an active scholar-activist. She taught politics at the University of the South Pacific, and ethics at Fiji National University. She is a founding member of the global South feminist network of scholar-activists, Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era (DAWN). Europa International Perspectives Providing in-depth analysis with a global reach, this series from Europa examines a wide range of contemporary political, economic, developmental and social issues in international perspec- tive. Intended to complement the Europa Regional Surveys of the World series and The Europa Directory of International Organizations, Europa International Perspectives will be an invaluable resource for academics, students, researchers, policymakers, business people and anyone with an interest in current world affairs with an emphasis on international organizations and issues. While The Europa World Year Book and its associated Europa Regional Surveys inform on and analyse contemporary economic, political and social developments, the Editors considered the need for more in-depth volumes written or edited by specialists in their field, in order to delve into particular regional situations. Volumes in the series are not constrained by any particular template, but may explore recent political, economic, regional and international relations, social, defence, or other issues in order to increase knowledge. Viral Sovereignty and the Political Economy of Pandemics What Explains How Countries Handle Outbreaks? Sophal Ear Handbook of Regional Conflict Resolution Initiatives in the Global South Jerónimo Delgado-Caicedo Handbook of Civil Society and Social Movements in Small States Edited by Lino Briguglio, Michael Briguglio, Sheila Bunwaree and Claire Slatter Handbook of Civil Society and Social Movements in Small States Edited by Lino Briguglio, Michael Briguglio, Sheila Bunwaree and Claire Slatter Cover image: © Shutterstock First published 2023 by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2023 selection and editorial matter, Lino Briguglio, Michael Briguglio, Sheila Bunwaree and Claire Slatter; individual chapters, the contributors The right of Lino Briguglio, Michael Briguglio, Sheila Bunwaree and Claire Slatter to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-032-37714-8 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-37715-5 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-34153-6 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003341536 Typeset in Bembo by Taylor & Francis Books Contents List of illustrations viii The editors and contributors x List of abbreviations and acronyms xvii Introduction: Civil society and social movements in small states 1 Lino Briguglio, Michael Briguglio, Sheila Bunwaree and and Claire Slatter PART I Environmental issues 11 1 Civil society and the pursuit of sustainable tourism in the small island jurisdiction of Tobago 13 Acolla Lewis-Cameron and Tenisha Brown-Williams 2 Engagement of civic organizations in environmental policies in Cabo Verde 26 José Maria Gomes Lopes 3 Network governance and the role of environmental non-governmental organizations in Belize 46 Ruth Gutierrez-Corley, Allanson Cruickshank and Stefano Moncada 4 Environmental protest in Malta during the COVID-19 pandemic 62 Michael Briguglio 5 The politics of land, space, social movements and identity in Jamaica’s Cockpit Country 74 Jordan K. Williams 6 Deep-sea mining in Pacific small island developing states: The role of civil society organizations 93 Viliame Kasanawaqa, Asinate Namuaira and Solo Mara Contents 7 A post-eruption analysis of the significance and challenges of community- based disaster risk management in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 105 Allanson Cruickshank, Rose-Ann Smith, Sanya Compton and Aria Laidlow PART II Social issues 121 8 Civil society, the state and the LGBTQIA+ movement: The case of Trinidad and Tobago and Mauritius 123 Andel Andrew, Lue Anda Francis-Blackman and Nandini Tanya Lallmon 9 Weaving ‘culture’ and political advocacy in a small island nation: Samoa Fa’afafine Association and non-heteronormative Samoans 138 Yoko Kanemasu and Asenati Liki 10 The role of civil society actors in responding to gender-based violence in Seychelles 151 Diana Benoit 11 The Refugee and Migrant Response Plan in the Caribbean Sub-Region: Emerging patterns and lessons for small state civil society in global migration governance 162 Lara-Zuzan Golesorkhi 12 Shrinking spaces for migrant-support CSOs in Malta, Cyprus and Slovenia: From the refugee crisis to the pandemic 174 Dominik Kalweit and William Grech 13 The role of churches in regional cooperation and governance in the Caribbean 189 Jessica Byron and Annita Montoute 14 Information and communication technologies as a catalyst for social activism and ‘bottom-up’ regionalism in the Pacific 204 Jason Titifanue and Romitesh Kant 15 The dilemmas of civil society and social movements in a rapidly growing economy: Botswana 219 David Sebudubudu and Patrick Molutsi vi Contents PART III Political issues 233 16 Estonian protest waves: Groups involved and motivating issues 235 Katrin Uba 17 The strength of civil society in Slovenia after three decades of post-communist experience 248 Tatjana Rakar and Tomaž Deželan 18 The role of civil society in Montenegro’s European Union accession process 262 Igor Lukšić and Aleksandar Andrija Pejović 19 The democratic potential of politically and socially oriented CSOs: The case of North Macedonia 274 Milka Ivanovska Hadjievska 20 How civil society organizations brought change to the Maltese government between 2019 and 2020 288 Mario Thomas Vassallo, Jean Claude Cachia and André P. DeBattista 21 Explosion of anger on the streets of Mauritius: The overhauling of a political system? 302 Sheila Bunwaree 22 Significant regional social movements in Oceania 314 Vijay Naidu and Claire Slatter 23 Nostalgia for the future: Student activism of the Caribbean Left 332 Amílcar Peter Sanatan 24 Unfrozen conflicts: Social movements and civil society in Cyprus 344 Michalis Moutselos Index 357 vii Illustrations Figures 2.1 Extent of ECSOs’ cooperation with the central government 38 2.2 The influence of ECSOs on PANA II 40 2.3 ECSOs’ influence on specific environmental policies, programmes or legislation 40 4.1 Specific issues leading to environmental protests 65 4.2 Organizers of environmental protests in Malta, 2020 66 4.3 Moviment Graffitti environmental protest networks, 2020 67 4.4 FAA’s environmental protest networks, 2020 68 4.5 Extinction Rebellion Malta’s environmental protest networks, 2020 69 4.6 The Maltese farmers’ environmental protest networks, 2020 69 4.7 Protest issues in Malta, 2020 70 5.1 Reference map of Jamaica 76 7.1 Map of the area of study 106 16.1 The annual number of protest events and average protest size 240 16.2 The main issues raised by protests during the course of three decades 242 16.3 The main issues raised by protests over the course of three decades 244 17.1 The increase in the number of CSOs in Slovenia between 1965 and 2020* 250 17.2 CSOs’ primary fields of activity 252 17.3 Share of civil society sector employees in the labour force 253 17.4 Main sources of funding for Slovenian CSOs, 2022 254 17.5 Percentage of CSOs invited to cooperate by national and local governments 256 17.6 The extent of CSOs’ willingness to engage with the authorities 257 17.7 The overall influence of civil society on policymaking in Slovenia 257 17.8 How would you describe the relationship between the state and civil society in Slovenia? 258 19.1 Respondent CSOs (%) classified by annual budget size 279 19.2 Distribution of different types of CSOs per primary area of geographical operation (%) 280 19.3 The share of CSOs in which members make authoritative decisions in key areas of governance (%) 281 19.4 Ways in which members participate in decision-making across CSO types (%) 281 19.5 Importance assigned to the participation by members in CSOs’ activities (averages on a Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5, where 5 shows the highest importance) 282 19.6 The share of CSOs engaged in outsider and insider strategies of influence (%) 283 List of illustrations Tables 2.1 ECSOs’ access to political authorities (17 responses out of 19) 30 2.2 ECSOs’ alliance partnership 32 2.3 The conservation, protection and sustainable development frame 33 2.4 The environmental injustice frame 34 2.5 Funds transferred to local associations by the DGASP (figures in Cabo Verde escudos) 36 2.6 Significance of partners’ donations on ECSOs’ project implementation 36 2.7 Linkages between the government and ECSOs 37 2.8 ECSOs’ strategies and activities for engagement 38 2.9 List of ECSOs interviewed 42 3.1 Summary of participants, types of ENGO and their conservation goals 52 7.1 Summary of the organizational features of the four CBOs representing civil society 110 7.2 Meeting frequency of CBOs 112 15.1 Estimated number of CSOs in Botswana, 2021 225 15.2 NGOs Policy objectives, challenges, interventions and expected outcomes, 2012 229 18.1 Participatory model of CSOs in candidate countries 267 18.2 Participatory model of CSOs in former candidate countries 268 19.1 Core organizational resources and age of each type of CSO (averages) 279 20.1 Mass mobilization by CSOs (2019–2020) 295 20.2 Effect of actions by CSOs 298 20.3 Levels of trust and scepticism 298 Box 7.1 Breakdown in the relationship of groups and NEMO following the eruption of the Soufrière volcano 114 ix