handbook of antennas in wireless communications

888 Pages·2001·35.72 MB·English

HANDBOOK
OF
ANTENNAS
IN WIRELESS
COMMUNICATIONS
© 2002 by CRC Press LLC
THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
AND APPLIED SIGNAL PROCESSING SERIES
Edited by Alexander Poularikas
The Advanced Signal Processing Handbook:
Theory and Implementation for Radar, Sonar,
and Medical Imaging Real-Time Systems
Stergios Stergiopoulos
The Transform and Data Compression Handbook
K.R. Rao and P.C. Yip
Handbook of Multisensor Data Fusion
David Hall and James Llinas
Handbook of Antennas in Wireless Communications
Lal Chand Godara
Forthcoming Titles
Propagation Data Handbook for Wireless Communications
Robert Crane
The Digital Color Imaging Handbook
Guarav Sharma
Handbook of Neural Network Signal Processing
Yu Hen Hu and Jeng-Neng Hwang
Applications in Time Frequency Signal Processing
Antonia Papandreou-Suppappola
Noise Reduction in Speech Applications
Gillian Davis
Signal Processing in Noise
Vyacheslav Tuzlukov
Electromagnetic Radiation and the Human Body:
Effects, Diagnosis and Therapeutic Technologies
Nikolaos Uzunoglu and Konstantina S. Nikita
Digital Signal Processing with Examples in MATLAB®
Samuel Stearns
© 2002 by CRC Press LLC
HANDBOOK
OF
ANTENNAS
IN WIRELESS
COMMUNICATIONS
Edited by
LAL CHAND GODARA
CRC Press
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Catalog record is available from the Library of Congress
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with
permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish
reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials
or for the consequences of their use.
Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior
permission in writing from the publisher.
All rights reserved. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the personal or internal use of specific
clients, may be granted by CRC Press LLC, provided that $1.50 per page photocopied is paid directly to Copyright clearance
Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923 USA. The fee code for users of the Transactional Reporting Service is
ISBN 0-8493-0124-6/02/$0.00+$1.50. The fee is subject to change without notice. For organizations that have been granted
a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.
The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works,
or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying.
Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.
Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com
© 2002 by CRC Press LLC
No claim to original U.S. Government works
International Standard Book Number 0-8493-0124-6
Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Printed on acid-free paper
Preface
I authored a two-part article for the Proceeding of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) on the application of antenna arrays to mobile communications in 1997. It provided the current
state of antenna array research and described how an array of antennas may be used to help meet the
ever-growing demand of increased channel capacity for wireless mobile communications services. The
amount and the kind of feedback I received on the subject, particularly from graduate students and
practicing engineers, indicated to me that there is a need for a more comprehensive source of this material
than a journal article.
One day in late 1998, I received an e-mail from Dr. Alexander D. Poularikas, who coordinates the
Electrical Engineering and Signal Processing series for CRC Press, inviting me to be the editor of a handbook
covering the fundamental developments of this field so that the engineers in practice or the ones who
want to start in this area have a good source to guide them.
I accepted his invitation and prepared a list of topics to be covered by the handbook. Because the
handbook was meant to be a major reference source on this subject, I invited the leading experts in the
field to contribute material on topics of their special interest.
I am very excited about the final outcome and trust that you share my enthusiasm as I briefly describe
what the handbook has to offer.
The handbook has successfully brought together every aspect of antennas in wireless communications
with 26 chapters filled with the latest research and development results compiled by leading researchers
in a manner that is easy to follow. The material has been developed logically, requiring no prerequisite
and thus making it extremely useful not only for researchers and practicing engineers as a reference book
but also for newcomers as a great source of learning.
It is a unique book covering all facets of antennas for wireless communications providing detailed
treatment of cellular systems, antenna design techniques, practical antennas, phased-array technology,
theory and implementation of smart antennas, and interaction of EM radiation with the human body.
It contains more than 1200 references for the readers to probe further.
The handbook would be useful for
• Practicing electrical engineers, in general, and communication engineers, in particular, as a ref-
erence book
• Academics in the area of mobile communications, signal processing, antenna theory, and smart
antennas
• Graduate students and researchers in this area
• Antenna designers in general
• Those who are fascinated by the field of mobile communications and smart antennas
The chapters in the book have been selected to provide coverage of different topics. However, some
overlap between various chapters has been allowed to provide discussion from a different point of view.
© 2002 by CRC Press LLC
The handbook has been organized into six parts outlined as follows:
A Wireless communication systems and channel characteristics
B Antenna technology and numerical methods
C Antenna developments and practical antennas
D Smart antennas and array theory
E Implementation of smart antenna systems
F Electromagnetic radiation and the human body
Chapters 1 through 4 are devoted to wireless communications systems and channel characterization.
Chapter 1, “Cellular Systems,” presents cellular fundamentals by describing the working of mobile com-
munications systems and discussing concepts of multiple access schemes, channel reuse, channel alloca-
tion and assignments, and handoff and power control. It then briefly describes various popular standards.
Chapter 2, “Satellite-Based Mobile Communications,” discusses satellite orbital fundamentals and the
satellite radiopath, and describes various mobile satellite communications systems. Chapter 3, “Propa-
gation Prediction for Urban Systems,” treats the prediction of the average signal strength for a variety of
physical parameters and conditions such as range, antenna height, presence of foliage, and terrain; and
discusses site specific predictions using ray models. Chapter 4, “Fading Channels,” emphasizes funda-
mental fading manifestations, types of degradation, and methods for mitigating the degradation. It
presents examples to mitigate the effects of frequency-selective fading in time division multiple access
(TDMA) and code division multiple access (CDMA) systems.
Chapters 5 through 10 provide coverage of antenna technology and numerical methods. Chapter 5
introduces basic antenna parameters and terminology; and discusses commonly used antenna types,
impedance matching, feeding arrangements, and available software for antenna analysis and design.
Chapter 6 introduces microstrip patch antennas by discussing their general characteristics. It describes
various feed techniques and methods to enhance bandwidth of patch antenna and to reduce the size of
conductors. Examples of active patch antennas are also included in this chapter. Chapter 7 introduces
the finite difference time domain (FDTD) method with emphasis on its applications to printed antenna
and antenna arrays. The chapter discusses fundamentals of FDTD, absorbing boundary conditions, and
radiation patterns; and presents examples of various microstrip antenna analyses. Chapter 8, “Method
of Moments Applied to Antennas,” concentrates on the application of integral equations to antenna
problems and their solution using the method of moments (MOM). It presents the basic philosophy of
MOM and its application to wire antennas, arbitrary metallic structures, and combined metallic and
dielectric structures. Chapter 9 introduces genetic algorithms and shows how these may be applied to
find good solutions to wireless antenna problems. Chapter 10, “High-Frequency Techniques,” presents
high-frequency applications for antennas by discussing modern geometric optics, geometric theory of
diffraction, physical optics, and physical theory of diffraction.
Chapters 11 through 15 constitute Part C of the handbook and are devoted to antenna developments
and practical antennas. Chapter 11 presents development in outdoor and indoor base station antennas
in Japan by describing various base station antennas for cellular systems, diversity antennas for macro-
cellular systems, antennas for micro- and picocellular systems, and personal handy phone system (PHS)
base station antennas. Chapter 12, “Handheld Antennas,” describes various antennas used for handheld
phones and presents a detailed study of meander line antennas for personal wireless communications.
Chapters 13 and 14 provide coverage on antenna development for satellite communications; Chapter 13
concentrates on aeronautical and maritime antennas whereas Chapter 14 focuses on fixed and mobile
© 2002 by CRC Press LLC
antennas. Chapter 13 presents antennas and tracking systems for International Maritime Satellite
(INMARSAT)-A, -B, -C, -F, -M, and -AERO; and antennas for land mobile earth stations and hand-
carried terminals. Chapter 14 presents space segment antennas, earth-segment antennas, and gateway
antennas for satellite communications; microstrip antennas for fixed and mobile satellite communica-
tions; and mobile antennas for receiving direct-broadcast satellite service television (DBS TV) and
SATPHONE antenna systems. Chapter 15, “Shaped-Beam Antennas,” focuses on shaped dielectric lens
antennas and presents design guidelines for these antennas along with the discussion of some practical
aspects, focusing on mobile applications.
Part D of this handbook on smart antennas and array theory contains Chapters 16 to 21. Chapter 16
presents basic array theory and pattern synthesis techniques by discussing basic theory of antenna arrays,
array weight synthesis techniques, and array geometry consideration for pattern adjustment. Many
examples are included in the chapter to emphasize the concepts. Chapter 17, “Electromagnetic Vector
Sensors with Beamforming Applications,” describes advantages and developments of vector sensors, solves
a beamforming problem using these sensors, and compares the results with that of scalar sensors.
Chapter 18, “Optimum and Suboptimum Transmit Beamforming,” discusses channel characterization
and presents beamforming strategies for transmit arrays including beamforming algorithms and robust
beamforming methods.
Chapter 19, “Spatial Diversity for Wireless Communications,” treats the basic principles of spatial
diversity combining and discusses the performance improvement that can be accomplished by a diversity
array using various combined techniques. The chapter also presents the results on the effect of branch
correlation and mutual coupling. Chapter 20, “Direction-of-Arrival Estimation in Mobile Communica-
tion Environments,” presents various methods for estimating direction of arrival (DOA) of point sources
and tracking of moving sources. A detailed treatment of estimation for the wireless channel is also
included in the chapter. Chapter 21, “Blind Channel Identification and Source Separation in Space
Division Multiple Access Systems,” addresses the problem of discriminating radio sources in the context
of cellular mobile wireless digital communications systems. The chapter describes several deterministic
as well as stochastic maximum likelihood methods to solve the blind sources separation and channel
identification problem.
Chapter 22 through Chapter 24 are devoted to implementation of smart antenna systems. Chapter 22,
“Smart Antenna System Architecture and Hardware Implementation,” presents an overview of system
architecture and implementation and discusses various important design issues. The chapter describes
some real-time implemented systems using digital signal processor (DSP) modules. Chapter 23 presents
phased-array technology for wireless systems by discussing phased-array antennas for land mobile com-
munications systems, stratospheric communications systems, and satellite communications systems.
Chapter 24, “Adaptive Antennas for Global System for Mobile Communications and Time Division
Multiple Access (Interim Standard-136) Systems,” starts with an overview of these systems and then
outlines some of the most important issues to consider when applying adaptive antenna techniques to
existing cellular systems. A discussion of some possible system architectures suitable for implementation
is presented and issues related to signal-processing algorithms are considered. The chapter presents a
detailed simulation of the system and compares the results with those obtained from field trials.
Chapters 25 and 26 are devoted to the final part on electromagnetic radiation and the human body.
Chapter 25 mainly deals with the effect on the human body of the radiation characteristics of handheld
antennas whereas Chapter 26 concentrates on health hazards of electromagnetic (EM) radiation.
Chapter 25, “Electromagnetic Interactions of Handheld Wireless Communication Antennas with the
© 2002 by CRC Press LLC
Human Body,” reviews exposure standards for radio-frequency (RF) fields and different types of handheld
wireless devices, and describes numerical techniques and experimental methods used to quantify and
characterize the interactions of the radiated field with humans. Examples showing the effect of these
interactions on the radiation and input impedance characteristics of antennas in handheld devices are
presented. Chapter 26, “Safety Aspects of Radio-Frequency Effects in Humans from Communication
Devices,” considers how guidelines for human exposures to RF are derived, known interactions with
human tissues and their measurements, and the evidence for the existence of health effects.
© 2002 by CRC Press LLC
Contributors
Sören Andersson Christos Christodoulou Lal C. Godara
Ericsson Radio Systems University of New Mexico School of Electrical Engineering
Stockholm, Sweden Albuquerque, New Mexico University College, University of
New South Wales
Hiroyuki Arai Australian Defence Force Academy
Henrik Dam
Division of Electric and Computer Canberra, Australia
Ericsson LMD
Engineering
Copenhagen, Denmark
Yokohama National University Javier Gómez-Tagle
Yokohama, Japan Electrical Engineering Department
Paul W. Davis ITESM
Victor Barroso School of Computer Science and Guadalajara, Mexico
Instituto Superior Tecnico Electrical Engineering
Instituto de Sistemas e Robotica University of Queensland Bo Hagerman
Lisboa, Portugal St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia Ericsson Radio Systems
S-164 80 Stockholm, Sweden
Mats Bengtsson
Department of Signals, Sensors Antonije R. Djordjevic Kwok Chiang Ho
and Systems School of Electrical Engineering Addest Technovation Pte. Ltd.
Royal Institute of Technology University of Belgrade Singapore, Republic of Singapore
Stockholm, Sweden Belgrade, Yugoslavia
Chun-Wen Paul Huang
Magnus Berg Atef Z. Elsherbeni Electrical Engineering Department
Ericsson Radio Systems Electrical Engineering Department University of Mississippi
Stockholm, Sweden University of Mississippi University, Mississippi
University, Mississippi
Jennifer T. Bernhard Magdy F. Iskander
Department of Electrical and Electrical Engineering Department
Computer Engineering Meng Hwa Er University of Utah
University of Illinois at Urbana- Nanyang Technological University Salt Lake City, Utah
Champaign School of Electrical and Electronic
Urbana, Illinois Engineering Ramakrishna Janaswamy
Singapore, Republic of Singapore Code EC/Js, Naval Postgraduate
Henry L. Bertoni School
Department of Electrical & Monterey, California
Carlos A. Cardoso
Computer Engineering
Fernandes
Polytechnic University Ami Kanazawa
Instituto Superior Técnico
Brooklyn, New York Yokosuka Radio Communications
Instituto de Telecomunicações
Research Center
Lisboa, Portugal
Marek E. Bialkowski Communication Research
School of Computer Science & Laboratory
Electrical Engineering Ulf Forssén Ministry of Posts and
University of Queensland Ericsson Radio Systems Telecommunications
Brisbane, Queensland, Australia Stockholm, Sweden Yokosuka, Japan
© 2002 by CRC Press LLC
Jonas Karlsson José M. F. Moura Roberto G. Rojas
Ericsson Radio Systems Department of Electrical and Department of Electrical
Stockholm, Sweden Computer Engineering Engineering/ESL
Carnegie Mellon University The Ohio State University
Nemai C. Karmakar Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Columbus, Ohio
School of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering Michael J. Ryan
Arye Nehorai
Nanyang Technological University School of Electrical Engineering
Department of EECs (M/C 154)
Singapore, Republic of Singapore Australian Defence Force Academy
University of Illinois at Chicago
Canberra, Australia
Chicago, Illinois
Branko M. Kolundzija
School of Electrical Engineering Tapan K. Sarkar
University of Belgrade Boon Poh Ng Department of Electrical and
Belgrade, Yugoslavia School of Electrical and Electronic Computer Engineering
Engineering Syracuse University
Fredric Kronestedt Nanyang Technological University Syracuse, New York
Ericsson Radio Systems Singapore, Republic of Singapore
Bernard Sklar
Stockholm, Sweden
Communications Engineering
H. Ogawa
Services
Te-Hong Lee Communications Research Tarzana, California
Department of Electrical Laboratory
Engineering/ESL Ministry of Posts and Charles E. Smith
The Ohio State University Telecommunications
Electrical Engineering Department
Columbus, Ohio Yokosuka, Kanagawa, Japan
University of Mississippi
University, Mississippi
Sara Mazur
Shingo Ohmori
Ericsson Radio Systems
Hyok J. Song
Communication Systems Division
Stockholm, Sweden
Communications Research HRL Laboratories, LLC
Laboratory Malibu, California
Eric Michielssen
Tokyo, Japan
Center for Computational Thomas Svantesson
Electromagnetics Department of Signals and Systems
Department of Electrical and Björn Ottersten Chalmers University of Technology
Computer Engineering Department of Signals, Sensors and Göteborg, Sweden
University of Illinois at Urbana- Systems
Champaign Royal Institute of Technology B. T. G. Tan
Urbana, Illinois Stockholm, Sweden Faculty of Science
National University of Singapore
Ryu Miura Singapore, Republic of Singapore
A. W. Preece
Yokosuka Radio Communications
Medical Physics University Research
Research Center Masato Tanaka
Centre
Communications Research Kashima Space Research Center
Bristol Oncology Centre
Laboratory Communications Research
Bristol, United Kingdom
Ministry of Posts and Laboratory
Telecommunications Ministry of Posts and
Yokosuka, Kanagawa, Japan Sembiam R. Rengarajan Telecommunications
Department of Electrical and Kashima, Ibaraki, Japan
Karl J. Molnar Computer Engineering
Ericsson Inc. California State University- Saúl A. Torrico
Research Triangle Park, North Northridge Comsearch
Carolina Northridge, California Reston, Virginia
© 2002 by CRC Press LLC