Handbook of Agrometeorology in Livestock, Poultry and Inland Fisheries sector World Meteorological Organization Geneva, Switzerland, 2017 Authors De Ruyver, Roberto1; Davison, Tom2; McGrath, Guy3; Sinachikupo, Kenneth4 and Chattopadhyay, Chirantan5 1 Climate and Water Institute – National Institute of Agricultural Technology – Argentina 2 Meat & Livestock Australia ‐ Australia 3 Centre for Veterinary Epidemiology and Risk Analysis – University College Dublin ‐ Ireland 4 Zambia Meteorological Department ‐ Zambia 5 Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari, Coochbehar 736165 (WB) ‐ India Table of contents 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 5 2. REVIEW OF CURRENT OPERATIONAL AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES .................. 9 2.1 Livestock, poultry and inland fisheries sector ............................................................................. 9 2.1.1 Region I: Africa .................................................................................................................. 10 2.1.2 Region II: Asia .................................................................................................................... 11 2.1.3 Region III: South America .................................................................................................. 12 2.1.4 Region IV: North America, Central America and the Caribbean ....................................... 13 2.1.5 Region V: Oceania ............................................................................................................. 13 2.1.5.1 General – Daily Forecasts and Warnings ....................................................................... 14 2.1.5.2 National Public Weather and Warning Service ............................................................. 14 2.1.5.3 National Agricultural Service ......................................................................................... 16 2.1.5.4 Climate Information Service .......................................................................................... 17 2.1.5.5 Water Information Service ............................................................................................ 20 2.1.6 Region VI: Europe .............................................................................................................. 23 2.1.6.1 Livestock ........................................................................................................................ 25 2.1.6.2 Poultry ........................................................................................................................... 25 2.1.6.3 Inland coastal and marine fisheries ............................................................................... 25 2.2 Early warning systems for pests for animals. Risk analysis. Health support decision system .. 26 2.3 Develop a list of requirements for operational agricultural meteorological services for the livestock and inland fisheries sector. .................................................................................................... 27 2.4 Recommendations, improvements and innovations (Animal disease notification systems) ... 27 3. GLOBAL DESCRIPTION OF LIVESTOCK, POULTRY AND INLAND FISHERIES ................................. 30 3.1 Livestock .................................................................................................................................... 30 3.2 Poultry ....................................................................................................................................... 33 3.3 Inland Fisheries .......................................................................................................................... 34 3.3.1 Aquaculture ....................................................................................................................... 36 4. PESTS (including DISEASES) OF LIVESTOCK, POULTRY AND FISHERIES ....................................... 39 4.1 General aspects ..................................................................................................................... 39 5. METEOROLOCIAL HAZARDS AND AGROMETEOROLOGICAL FACTORS AFFECTING LIVESTOCK, POULTRY AND FISHERIES. ..................................................................................................................... 43 5.1 General aspects ......................................................................................................................... 43 5.2 Droughts .................................................................................................................................... 43 5.3 Wild Fires ................................................................................................................................... 44 5.4 Thermal stress ........................................................................................................................... 44 5.5 Floods ........................................................................................................................................ 45 5.6 Other meteorological hazards ................................................................................................... 46 6. AGROMETEOROLOGICAL PRODUCTS, SERVICES, EARLY WARNINGS SYSTEMS AND INDICES TO BE DEVELOPED. ..................................................................................................................................... 48 6.1 CASE STUDY 1 ............................................................................................................................ 48 THE COST OF HOT COWS AND THE ROLE OF FORECASTING ............................................................. 48 6.2 CASE STUDY 2 ............................................................................................................................ 52 FOOD AND MOUTH DISEASE (FMD) .................................................................................................. 52 6.3 CASE STUDY 3 ............................................................................................................................ 54 LIVESTOCK, CLIMATE VARIABILITY AND LEPTOSPIROSIS ................................................................... 54 6.4 CASE STUDY 4 ............................................................................................................................ 65 INLAND FISHERIES CASE STUDY ......................................................................................................... 65 6.5 CASE STUDY 5 ............................................................................................................................ 67 PASTORALIST AND PASTORALISM IN AFRICA .................................................................................... 67 7. CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................................... 74 1. INTRODUCTION Many different aspects are involved within agricultural meteorology, but all of them can be resumed in only one objective: providing agrometeorological services and information to farmers and other decision makers in agricultural production. This definition of agrometeorological services was given by Stigter in 2007. The world population follows an increasing tendency. According to United Nations (2015) population of the world reached 7.35 billons in 2015 and the projections suggest the population reaching most probably 8.5 billion in 2030 and to increase further to 9.7 billion in 2050 and 11.2 billion in 2100. When world population growth is analyzed by regions, higher increase is expected to be witnessed in developing countries during next decades. A wide variety of challenges wait for people in relation to many factors which could affect them during next coming years and decades. The list of factors could be divided in to two groups. The first group includes variables with more certainties to happen than variables in the second one. In the first group the variables are the world population growths, the problems with drinking water access and the necessity of increased food production. Nobody can reject the growing tendency in these three variables and the answers must be found by the global community to assure a suitable life for everyone in the world. On the other hand, climatic and economic variables are included in the second group. Their behaviors are more unpredictable than the variables cited in the first group. Many researches show a tendency to a climate change mainly based on climatic models based on the assumption of a sustained increase in some greenhouse gases. These models forget to consider many variables from the system and the uncountable interactions among them that happen in the integrated atmosphere‐ocean‐soil system. In this sense, the tendency of the variables in the two groups, if there is one, is more certainly to happen in the first one than in the second. The uncertainty about climate change was precisely expressed by Rust and Rust (2013) about climate change uncertainty itself and its timeframes. In this scenario, global demand of livestock products will continue to increase significantly during this century (Thornton et. al., 2009). According to these authors, in the complexity of livestock systems combined most of the time with crops in developing countries, a mix of technological, policy and institutional innovations will be required. They mentioned that in technology side a combination of factors will be considered like feed, nutrition, genetics, breeding, health and environmental management options. In spite of this unspecific comment about environment they didn´t make any particular mention to weather forecast and the development of tools from agrometeorological sector. From this point of view, it could be hypothesized that more expectations are awaited from veterinary or biology sciences than meteorological sciences. Before considering this aspect like a disadvantage it should be taken as a big opportunity for both a challenge to improve our knowledge of the atmosphere and to be creative to develop and offer new products to help communities to find more ways for resilience or adaptation processes. Although the answers from agrometeorological sector should be reached in a faster way for the most vulnerable communities in developing countries scientific meteorological community must offer solutions upon a world vision. Thornton et. al. (2009) remarked the importance of climate change and climate variability for the next decades and the limited knowledge between the interactions of climate and other drivers of change in agricultural systems. They listed the impacts of climate change on livestock under seven categories: feeds, quantity and quality; heat stress; water; livestock diseases and disease vectors; biodiversity systems and livelihoods; and indirect impacts. During recent decades a variety of answers were given by Agrometeorology science to solve problems related to agriculture and livestock productions in different regions. According to Stigter (2011) agrometeorological services are integrated by four support systems namely data, research, education/training/extension and policies. The experience showed that these support systems must be frequently oriented on mitigating impacts of disasters. Stigter (2011) showed some examples in agrometeorological services related to date of harvest schedule based on weather data and crops/varieties, shade of the trees to avoid surface drying, covered surface to prevent soil to be blown away by winds and evaporation losses from the surface in arid regions, among others. He distinguished two ways of operating Agrometeorological Services. On one hand they are related to National Meteorological Services that collect and generate agrometeorological information and services through applied scientists. On the other hand they may also be generated by agricultural research institutes, universities which should be focused as close to the farmers as possible. In any case, the challenge for agrometeorologists is to obtain skills effectively developed and integrated in operational agricultural meteorology to make agricultural production systems more reliable and efficient (Motha et al., 2006). It is not so difficult to discover by literature that there are few public agrometeorological services in developed countries except for some aspects related to large scale water management (Stigter, 2011). The scarcity is still greater when a review is done to find products in livestock, poultry and inland fisheries from public agrometeorological services. It is important to remember a recommendation that was given by Stigter (2011) at farm level. Many times there is a huge gap between a scientific research and its application in the real world. This means that so many products are unused. International organizations, countries and scientific communities work hard and invest too much resource to find answers to the field. However the process fails because a poor quality data is obtained, the advisories come with not enough time to react or communication channels are not correctly understood by farmers. Fisheries are influenced by weather conditions through solar radiation and air temperature. Meteorological variables are important because they have consequences on fishermen in its task of capture both in his own safety conditions and the favorable environment to catch fish. Through the time aquaculture was increasing its relevance in fisheries. In 2004, 38.1% of total fisheries production were obtained from aquaculture while in the same year inland fisheries reached 10% (8.7 million t) with respect to commercial catch of fisheries products from the oceans (WMO, 2010). In spite of the importance of meteorology in fisheries the agrometeorological services are not well developed for aquaculture. During the first decades of the 21st century wild fisheries production had fluctuations without a clear trend. However, meteorological data can explain observed changes in fisheries production (WMO, 2010). The knowledge in aquaculture shows how meteorological variables and its oscillations can affect this activity. Consecutive solar radiation days, days with overcast skies, water temperature, annual precipitation, evapotranspiration amount among others are related to fluctuations in fish production in any type of ponds (watershed, excavated or embankment). Variations in the amount of light on ponds can cause many problems related to algae formation and localization in the pond. The temperature of aquatic animals varies according to changes in water temperature. But each species has a threshold of temperature tolerance. Aquatic animals living near their limits of water temperature tolerance are more sensitive to diseases and infections and they spend more energy to survey with negative consequences in their growth and reproduction. The death happens when temperature reach values outside the range of temperature tolerance. It is also true that abnormally high water temperature results in low dissolved oxygen concentrations. Sometimes, a heavy rain from a strong cold front can causes destratification of the reservoir and this scenario reduces dissolved oxygen concentrations to values which trigger the death of fish. For example, this happened in a tilapia cage in Honduras in 2003 and the mortality was estimated to be 1,500 t of fish (WMO, 2010). The equilibrium point in aquaculture system is very weak and highly variable due to meteorological conditions. Most of the aquaculture ponds in the world are located in Asia. Aquaculture production was nearly 60 million t in 2004. The total amount of catch fish from freshwater reached 32 million t (WMO, 2010). The Guide to Agricultural Meteorological Practices (WMO, 2010) suggests the main research lines to be developed between agrometeorology and aquaculture: To predict the influence that global climate change would have on production. To improve the knowledge of the relationships among agrometeorological variables, water quality and production The effects of wind‐induced circulation on water quality, phytoplankton and off‐ flavour in ponds. Refinement of dissolved oxygen models to incorporate weather forecast information The use of satellite images and hand‐held spectral reflectometers to measure phytoplankton biomass. The use of weather and water quality data in predictive models of fish feeding behavior. The effects of weekly or shorter variations in water temperature on the growth of culture species. REFERENCES Motha, R.P.; Sivakumar, M.V.K. and Beranardi, M. (Eds.) (2006). Strengthening Operational Agrometeorological Services at the National Level. Proceedings of the Inter‐Regional Workshop, March 22‐26, 2004, Manila, Philippines. Washington, D.C., USA: United States Department of Agriculture; Geneva, Switzerland: World Meteorological Organization; Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Technical Bulletin WAOB‐ 2006‐1 and AGM‐9, WMO/TD No. 1277, 238 pp. Rust, J.M. and Rust, T. (2013). Climate change and livestock production: A review with emphasis on Africa. South African Journal of Animal Science. Vol. 43 (3), 255‐267. ISSN 222‐ 4062 (online). Stigter, C.J. (2007). From basic agrometeorological science to agrometeorological services and information for agricultural decision makers: A simple conceptual and diagnostic framework. Guest editorial in Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 142, 91‐95. Stigter, C.J. (2011). Agrometeorological Services: Reaching all Farmers with Operational Information Products in new educational Commities. CAgM Report No. 104. World Meteorological Organization. Geneva. Thornton, P.K.; van de Steeg, J.; Notenbaert, A. and Herrero, M. (2009). The impacts of climate change on livestock and livestock systems in developing countries: A review of what we know and what we need to know. Agricultural Systems 101, 113‐127. United Nations. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2015). World Population Prospects: The 2015 Revision, Key Findings and Advance Tables. Working Paper No. ESA/P/WP.241. World Meteorological Organization (2010). Guide to Agricultural Meteorological Practices (GAMP). WMO‐Nro. 134. 797 pg. ISBN: 978‐92‐63‐10134‐1 (Updated in 2012). 2. REVIEW OF CURRENT OPERATIONAL AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES. A research about the use of weather data in developed countries was made by Frisvold and Murugesan (2013). They collected 284 answers from a survey of farmers and ranchers in Arizona (USA). The sample included three categories of producers: a) Crop producers (37% of the sample); b) Livestock producers (50% of the sample) and c) Diversified producers (both crop and livestock producers, 13% of the sample). They used a multivariate regression analyses. The study ranked soil moisture, frost and temperature as the types of weather data more frequently important for farmers and ranchers. Weather data are more frequently used for timing irrigation first and livestock management later. They remarked that livestock producers found fewer data types important. However, Frisvold and Murugesan (2013) showed the answers of how weather and climate data are used by producer type in management decision. Four categories of fourteen were specifically related to livestock producers. The ranking of these four categories was: 1) Livestock grazing (close to 68% of the livestock producers only). 2) Moving Livestock (close to 61%). 3) Livestock sales (close to 49%). 4) Livestock pest control (close to 36%). Although this result comes from a unique sample in a developed country it is interesting to know how farmers consider agrometeorological variables for using in livestock sector. Other survey of farmers was made asking about livestock production constraints perception in Ginchi watershed area in Ethiopia, Africa (Belay et. al. 2013). Ethiopia has a livestock population (cattle, sheep, goats, chickens and horses) close to 126 million heads and it is the largest livestock population in Africa. The four most important categories ranked by these farmers were: 1) Feed shortage (100% of answers) 2) Animal disease (73%) 3) Water shortage during dry season (27%) 4) Poor water quality (27%) 2.1 Livestock, poultry and inland fisheries sector Services or agrometeorological products provided by National Meteorological Services or other Institutions could be resumed by considering specific products (like Temperature and Humidity Index). However, there are many meteorological variables not primarily applied to agrometeorological activities by a specific product but related to them through a spatial meteorological relation. In much of the cases, a map describing a meteorological behaviour reveals information to be used for decision making processes. An important source of data, information, products and meteorological services is available through WAMIS (World AgroMeteorological Information Service) http://www.wamis.org/ A description of Agrometeorological products and services provided to farmers to help their decision making process is shown by World Meteorological Organization (WMO) regions: 2.1.1 Region I: Africa Table 2.1.1: Conceptual Framework‐National Meteorological and Hydrological Service Products and Services Produced Product Content Clients served Is the downscaled seasonal climate • Farmers consensus forecast issued by SARCOF • General public and NMHSs in liaison with Global • Energy Production Canters (GPCs), IRI, NCEP, • Water utilities UK Met Office, the European Centre for • etc Medium‐Range Weather Forecasts, SEASONAL RAINFALL among other partners, at the Southern FORECAST Africa Regional Climate Outlook Forum (SARCOF). Forecast that give rainfall pattern in three categories (Normal, above normal, below normal terciles) for six months (OND, NDJ, DJF, JFM, FMA) Weather forecasts issued out to the • Farmers agricultural communities and general • General public public daily. Contain detailed likelihood • Energy of forecasts (possibility of precipitation • Water utilities DAILY WEATHER and temperature, etc.) for the following etc FORECAST day in Zambia. They also include detailed daily weather statistics (usually for previous day), including temperature and precipitation. Contains information on how the • Farmers weather changed during the last 7 days • General public and how it is expected to change in the • Energy next 7 days. The 7‐day forecasts are • Water utilities 7‐DAY WEATHER used for short term agricultural planning etc FORECAST such as planting, drying grains, weeding, applying fertilizer and insecticides, herbicides etc. general management e.g poultry, forest, livestock
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