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Haiti and the Uses of America Haiti and the Uses of America • Post- U.S. Occupation Promises Chantalle F. Verna Rutgers University Press New Brunswick, Camden, and Newark, New Jersey, and London Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Verna, Chantalle F., 1974– author. Title: Haiti and the uses of America : post-U.S. occupation promises / Chantalle F. Verna. Description: New Brunswick, New Jersey : Rutgers University Press, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016025801| ISBN 9780813585178 (hardcover : alk. paper) | ISBN 9780813585161 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN 9780813585185 (e-book (epub)) Subjects: LCSH: United States—Foreign relations—Haiti. | Haiti—Foreign relations—United States. | BISAC: HISTORY / Caribbean & West Indies / G eneral. | HISTORY / Americas (North, Central, South, West Indies). | POLITICAL SCIENCE / Colonialism & Post-Colonialism. | HISTORY / United States / 20th Century. Classification: LCC E183.8.H2 V47 2017 | DDC 327.7307294—dc23 https://lccn.loc.gov/2016025801 LC record available at A British Cataloging- in- Publication record for this book is available from the British Library. Copyright © 2017 by Chantalle F. Verna All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, elec- tronic or mechanical, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the publisher. Please contact Rutgers University Press, 106 Somerset Street, New Brunswick, NJ 08901. The only exception to this prohibition is “fair use” as defined by U.S. copyright law. www .rutgersuniversitypress .org Manufactured in the United States of America With heartfelt memories of André Elizée (January 30, 1955– January 10, 2010) and Eddy Jean- Baptiste (March 14, 1972– February 22, 2011) Contents Preface ix Note on Terminology and Language xiii Introduction 1 1. The Promise and Peril of Foreign Ties, 1791– 1915 20 2. “With the Spirit of Friendship”: U.S. Occupation, Indigénisme, and Haitian Nationalism, 1915– 1934 42 3. Pan- Americanism in Port- au- Prince: Historical Memories and Urban Activities, 1934– 1945 73 4. La Nouvelle Coopération: Cultivating Knowledge through Haiti- U.S. Ties, 1936– 1948 98 5. “Viva UNESCO”: A Subtle Embedding of the United States in Haiti, 1948– 1953 122 Epilogue: Enduring Promises 148 Acknowledgments 153 Abbreviations 163 Notes 165 Note on Sources 201 Bibliography 203 Index 227 vii Preface We must have the dream. . . . and try to attain it at its maximum. . . . We must continue to fight, so we can arrive at what is possible. — Haitian scholar and activist Odette Roy Fombrun, 2002 A tremendous sense of hopefulness often accompanies moments of transition—b eginnings and endings bring with them aspirations and expectations of what is to come. Ideas from the past or those newly inspired in the present can generate a sense of promising possibility. Haiti and the Uses of America is about the promise of the first two decades after the U.S. military occupation of Haiti, which lasted from 1915 to 1934, and the value of paying attention to the idyllic rhetoric during Haiti’s earliest post-U .S. occupation years. In doing so, I offer a perspective that is often absent from com- mon narratives which explain U.S. involvement in Haitian affairs strictly as a product of U.S. imperialism, a function of a growing diaspora that emerged most notably during the dictatorships of François Duvalier (1957–1971) and his son Jean-Claude (1971–1986) and after changes to U.S. immigration laws in 1965. Unlike those who have taken up the task of investigating the pursuits and impli- cations of a foreign, and particularly a U.S., presence in Haiti, I emphasize the complexity of interests some Haitians have had in U.S. involvement in Haiti and the consequences thereof. By impli- cations and consequences, I do not mean specific, tangible results that came when some Haitians reached out to individuals and institutions from the United States. Rather, I am more concerned ix about understanding the roots and nature of ideas that ties to the United States could be positively promising in Haiti, and how those ideas began to establish themselves within various sectors of Haitian society, beginning with Haiti’s professional and skilled urban residents. My aim is to provide greater historical depth and complexity to our understanding of the perspectives that inform Haiti’s current ties to the United States. My yearning for a more nuanced perspective came during the 1990s when I began wondering why some Haitians anticipated that U.S. involvement in the Haitian state’s affairs could be a good thing, especially given critiques about occupation in the past and other forms of imperialism in the present. I had been observing and, with my own novice hopes, experiencing the roller coaster of expectations that came with the end of the Duvalier dictatorship in 1986. For many in Haiti and in the diaspora, visions of cross- class alliances in post- Duvalier Haiti held the promise of resolv- ing many of Haiti’s challenges. Sadly, highly contested elections and related violence thwarted that vision. Those challenges played out vividly when Jean-B ertrand Aristide, a Catholic priest turned populist politician, who in February 1991 had become Haiti’s first post- dictatorship elected president, was ousted by a military coup several months later. With the support of some Haitian lobbyists, in Haiti and from within many of Haiti’s U.S.-b ased diaspora communities, the U.S. government imposed trade embargoes on Haiti and ultimately, in 1994, entered into an agreement with the military junta to secure Aristide’s return to power. Fast-f orward two decades, in Haiti’s bicentennial year of independence (2004), another segment of Haiti’s U.S.- based diaspora lobbied U.S. officials again. This time, the result was U.S. assistance for Aristide’s removal from power during his highly contested second elected term. In 1994 and again in 2004, the U.S. government intervened militarily in Haiti, on both occasions under the auspices of United Nations missions. Listening to competing views in news reports and in debates among family members, I reflected on the critiques I had heard when it came to previous interventions (including the one that x Preface

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