Green Photonics and Electronics

299 Pages·2017·14.35 MB·English

by  Gadi Eisenstein

NanoScience and Technology
Gadi Eisenstein
Dieter Bimberg Editors
Green Photonics
and Electronics
NanoScience and Technology
Series editors
Phaedon Avouris, Yorktown Heights, USA
Bharat Bhushan, Columbus, USA
Dieter Bimberg, Berlin, Germany
Cun-Zheng Ning, Tempe, USA
Klaus von Klitzing, Stuttgart, Germany
Roland Wiesendanger, Hamburg, Germany
Theseries NanoScienceandTechnologyisfocusedonthefascinatingnano-world,
mesoscopic physics, analysis with atomic resolution, nano and quantum-effect
devices, nanomechanics and atomic-scale processes. All the basic aspects and
technology-oriented developments in this emerging discipline are covered by
comprehensive and timely books. The series constitutes a survey of the relevant
specialtopics,whicharepresentedbyleadingexpertsinthefield.Thesebookswill
appeal to researchers, engineers, and advanced students.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/3705
⋅
Gadi Eisenstein Dieter Bimberg
Editors
Green Photonics and
Electronics
123
Editors
GadiEisenstein DieterBimberg
Departmenmt ofElectriocal Engineeering Centerof NanoPhotonics
andRussellBerrie Nanotechnology Technical University of Berlin
Institute Berlin
Technion –Israel Institute of Technology Germany
Haifa
Israel
ISSN 1434-4904 ISSN 2197-7127 (electronic)
NanoScience andTechnology
ISBN978-3-319-67001-0 ISBN978-3-319-67002-7 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-67002-7
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2017951174
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Preface
The energy consumption associated with the Internet has become a major concern
of the scientific and technological communities, the economic and political estab-
lishment as well as the media and the public at large. The vast increase in the
Internetusage,drivenbyacontinuousintroductionofnewapplications,integration
and reliance of public services and an increase in the number of users worldwide
broughtuponasituationwheretheabilityofmodernsocietytosupplytherequired
energy for the predicted consumption associated with future computing and com-
munication came into question. While several apocalyptic predictions published in
theearlyyearsofthethirdmillenniumwilldefinitelynotmaterialize,theproblemis
real and requires a solutions to which the technological community must dedicate
itself.
Achieving an energy-efficient Internet requires a multi-facet solution that
addressesallaspectsofthecomplexdatanetwork.Animportantpartofthesolution
will involve photonic devices and systems. The photonics technologies have tra-
ditionally not emphasized sufficiently energy issues but once it became clear that
efficiency is paramount, large efforts aiming at reducing the power required by
photonic devices, mainly lasers, have started. A new field called Green Photonics
has emerged and quickly became popular.
However,photonicdevicesaredrivenbyandfeedelectroniccircuits,whichare
often energy inefficient and hence have to also be improved. Above and beyond
this, the energy consumption is affected by the complete computing and commu-
nication systems. It is obvious, therefore, that what is needed are not photonic
devicesandsystemsthatareGreenbutrather,thetechnologicalcommunityshould
seektodevelopaGreenInternetwhereeachpartisasenergy efficientaspossible.
The development of a Green Internet requires a dialog and collaborations
betweenexpertsofmanyfieldsincludingphotonics,VLSIcircuitdesign,computer
architecture, networks, switching and information sciences. An additional aspect
of the Green Internet is the use of renewable energy sources whenever possible.
The significance of holding this multidisciplinary dialog was recognized by the
directors of the Russell Berrie Nanotechnology Institute at Technion – Israel
Institute of Technology and the Center for Nano Photonics at the Technical
v
vi Preface
University of Berlin who joined forces and established a series of three annual
GreenPhotonicssymposiaheldalternativelyinHaifaandBerlinbetween2014and
2016. These symposia which were funded by the Reinhart Frank Foundation
brought together world famous experts in all fields related to the Green Internet.
This book summarizes the three Green Photonics symposia highlighting the most
important topics that were covered.
Optoelectronic semiconductor devices are addressed extensively. Energy-
efficient VCSELs for the common 850 nm range as well as for 1550 nm are
covered in two separate Chaps. 1 and 2, respectively. The advantages of quantum
dots are highlighted in two chapters one, Chap. 3 dealing with optical amplifiers
and the second, Chap. 4 with mode-locked lasers. Low-energy fast switching is
described in Chap. 5 which addresses nonlinear photonic crystal waveguides. The
electronic aspects of a Green Internet is covered in a few chapters. Low-energy
logic design is presented in Chap. 6, while power management in the so-called
Network on Chip devices is presented in Chap. 7. The higher level system aspects
cover the topics of optimization of large interconnect networks is addressed in
Chap.8.Finally,weincludetwochaptersthatdealwithrenewableenergysources;
Chap. 9 is an extensive survey of the global impact of photovoltaics and Chap. 10
deals with futuristic solar cells based on thin film organic semiconductors.
Thediverseissuescoveredbythe10chaptersofthebookhighlighttheneedfor
an extensive multidisciplinary dialog and for collaborations between experts from
different fields. This joint effort is needed to ensure a future Green Internet, which
willenablealltheapplicationsneededbythemodernsocietyatanenergycostthat
is affordable.
Haifa, Israel Gadi Eisenstein
Berlin, Germany Dieter Bimberg
Contents
1 Energy-Efficient Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers
for Optical Interconnects ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 1
Philip Moser, James A. Lott and Dieter Bimberg
1.1 VCSEL Energy Efficiency . .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 1
1.2 Energy Efficiency Figures of Merit... .... .... .... ..... .... 2
1.3 Resonance Frequency and Modulation Bandwidth... ..... .... 4
1.4 Energy Efficiency Analysis. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 7
1.5 Energy Efficient Data Transmission Results.... .... ..... .... 10
1.6 Summary . .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 13
References. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 14
2 High-Speed InP-Based Long-Wavelength VCSELs. .... ..... .... 17
Silvia Spiga and Markus C. Amann
2.1 InP-Based VCSELs . ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 18
2.1.1 Active Region..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 18
2.1.2 Hybrid-Cavity Concepts . .... .... .... .... ..... .... 19
2.1.3 Tunnel-Junction Laser... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 22
2.2 Single-Mode 1.55-µm Short-Cavity VCSELs... .... ..... .... 23
2.2.1 Hybrid Dielectric-Semiconductor VCSELs ... ..... .... 24
2.2.2 Stationary Characteristics .... .... .... .... ..... .... 25
2.2.3 Dynamic Characteristics . .... .... .... .... ..... .... 28
2.3 VCSEL Arrays and Advanced Modulation Formats.. ..... .... 29
2.3.1 Data Communication.... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 29
2.3.2 Telecommunication. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 31
2.4 Conclusion .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 32
References. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 33
vii
viii Contents
3 Quantum-Dot Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers for
Energy-Efficient Optical Communication. .... .... .... ..... .... 37
Holger Schmeckebier and Dieter Bimberg
3.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 38
3.2 Basics of Quantum-Dot Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers . .... 40
3.2.1 Parameters of SOAs .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 40
3.2.2 Dynamics of Conventional and QD SOAs ... ..... .... 42
3.2.3 Design and Static Characteristics of QD SOAs..... .... 44
3.2.4 QD SOA Sample Series . .... .... .... .... ..... .... 45
3.3 Phase Modulation of QD SOAs . .... .... .... .... ..... .... 46
3.3.1 Introduction of the Concept... .... .... .... ..... .... 46
3.3.2 Prove of the Concept ... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 47
3.4 Concept of Dual-Communication-Band Amplifiers... ..... .... 51
3.4.1 Introduction of the Concept... .... .... .... ..... .... 51
3.4.2 Proof of Concept... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 52
3.5 Signal Processing—Wavelength Conversion.... .... ..... .... 56
3.5.1 Non-linearities of SOA Gain Media .... .... ..... .... 57
3.5.2 Four-Wave Mixing in QD SOAs .. .... .... ..... .... 58
3.5.3 Optimization of Static Four-Wave Mixing in QD SOAs.... 61
3.5.4 FWM of D(Q)PSK Signals... .... .... .... ..... .... 64
3.6 Summary . .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 68
References. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 68
4 Quantum-DotMode-LockedLasers:SourcesforTunableOptical
and Electrical Pulse Combs ... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 75
Dejan Arsenijević and Dieter Bimberg
4.1 Quantum-Dot Mode-Locked Lasers .. .... .... .... ..... .... 75
4.1.1 Device Structures .. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 76
4.1.2 Passive Mode-Locking .. .... .... .... .... ..... .... 77
4.2 Jitter Reduction and Frequency Tuning ... .... .... ..... .... 79
4.2.1 Hybrid Mode-Locking... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 81
4.2.2 Optical Injection ... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 84
4.2.3 Optical Self-Feedback... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 86
4.3 Applications... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 91
4.3.1 Millimeter-Wave-Signal Generation .... .... ..... .... 91
4.3.2 Optical Communication.. .... .... .... .... ..... .... 96
4.4 Conclusion .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 101
References. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 101
5 Nanophotonic Approach to Energy-Efficient Ultra-Fast
All-Optical Gates... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 107
Grégory Moille, Sylvain Combrié and Alfredo De Rossi
5.1 Introduction: A Case for All-Optical Signal Processing .... .... 107
5.2 Integrated All-Optical Gate. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 109
Contents ix
5.2.1 Technologies for Integrated On-Chip All-Optical
Processing... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 109
5.2.2 Energy-Efficient All-Optical Gates . .... .... ..... .... 111
5.2.3 III–V Photonic Crystals Resonators. .... .... ..... .... 113
5.3 Nonlinear Dynamics in PhC Resonators... .... .... ..... .... 115
5.3.1 Microwatt Nonlinear Response.... .... .... ..... .... 115
5.3.2 Fast Optical Nonlinearities in Semiconductors ..... .... 116
5.3.3 Nonlocal Nonlinear Response of PhC Cavities..... .... 118
5.4 PhC All-Optical Gate..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 118
5.4.1 Photon Molecule... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 121
5.4.2 The Role of the Carrier Lifetime... .... .... ..... .... 121
5.4.3 InP .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 123
5.4.4 P-Doped InP. ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 124
5.4.5 Passivated GaAs... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 126
5.4.6 Integration with Silicon Photonics.. .... .... ..... .... 128
5.5 Application Example: All-Optical Signal Sampling .. ..... .... 129
5.5.1 All-Optical Sampling.... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 130
5.6 Conclusions ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 133
References. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 133
6 Alternative Logic Families for Energy-Efficient and High
Performance Chip Design..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 139
Itamar Levi and Alexander Fish
6.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 139
6.2 Background ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 141
6.3 DML Basics... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 155
6.4 DML Utilization for Increased E-D Flexibility.. .... ..... .... 158
6.5 Summary . .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 167
References. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 167
7 Secure Power Management and Delivery Within Intelligent
Power Networks on-Chip ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 173
Inna Partin-Vaisband and Eby G. Friedman
7.1 Power Network on-Chip for Distributed Power Delivery
and Management ... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 176
7.1.1 Concept of Power Network-on-Chip.... .... ..... .... 177
7.1.2 Power Network-on-Chip Architecture... .... ..... .... 177
7.1.3 Challenges in Distributed Power Delivery.... ..... .... 180
7.2 Power Routing in SoCs ... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 181
7.2.1 Power Routers..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 181
7.2.2 Locally Powered Loads.. .... .... .... .... ..... .... 182
7.2.3 Power Grid.. ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 182
7.2.4 Case Study .. ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 183
7.3 Stable Distributed Power Delivery Systems .... .... ..... .... 185