Green Materials for Sustainable Water Remediation and Treatment

276 Pages·2013·6.08 MB·English

by  Anuradha Mishra

Green Materials for Sustainable Water Remediation and
Treatment
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RSC Green Chemistry
Series Editors:
James H Clark, Department of Chemistry, University of York, UK
01 GeorgeAKraus,DepartmentofChemistry,IowaStateUniversity,Ames,Iowa,USA
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P Andrzej Stankiewicz, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands
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1- Peter Siedl, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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50 Yuan Kou, Peking University, People’s Republic of China
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1 Titles in the Series:
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9 1: The Future of Glycerol: New Uses of a Versatile Raw Material
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3 2: Alternative Solvents for Green Chemistry
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0. 3: Eco-Friendly Synthesis of Fine Chemicals
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oi: 4: Sustainable Solutions for Modern Economies
g | d 5: Chemical Reactions and Processes under Flow Conditions
or 6: Radical Reactions in Aqueous Media
sc. 7: Aqueous Microwave Chemistry
bs.r 8: The Future of Glycerol: 2nd Edition
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http://p 9: TBrioagnaspsoarntdatBioinodBieiosefulels: Novel Pathways for the Production of Ethanol,
n 10: Alternatives to Conventional Food Processing
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ber and Applications
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6 15: Enantioselective Homogeneous Supported Catalysis
. on 0 16: Natural Polymers Volume 1: Composites
ed 17: Natural Polymers Volume 2: Nanocomposites
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blis 18: Integrated Forest Biorefineries
Pu 19:SustainablePreparationofMetalNanoparticles:MethodsandApplications
20: Alternative Solvents for Green Chemistry:2ndEdition
21: Natural Product Extraction: Principles and Applications
22: Element Recoveryand Sustainability
23: Green Materials for Sustainable Water Remediation and Treatment
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Green Materials for Sustainable
Water Remediation and
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g | d Gautam Buddha University, Greater Noida, India
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1 RSCGreenChemistryNo.23
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ber ISBN: 978-1-84973-621-3
m ISSN: 1757-7039
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1-
00 Preface
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oi: LifeonEarthreliesonthegiftsofnature.Waterisonesuchgift,withoutwhich
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g | we and the other creatures on the planet cannot exist. The essential role of
or water has long been recognized and was worshipped in many countries and
c.
s.rs civilizations,includingancientIndia,Egypt,Iran,Greece,Rome,Israel,Syria,
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u Jordan, and Mongolia. Water has been paid high esteem in ancient Indian
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p:// culture to the extent that it is regarded as ‘‘God’’. Indeed, water is considered
htt sacredinallreligions:Christians,Muslims,andHindussprinkleholywateron
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3 o anewbornchild.Thisrecognitionoftheimportanceofwaterhasledtoquotes
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0 intheir holy books such as‘‘God gives life to a substance by means of water’’
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er (Islam: The Holy Quran 21:30), ‘‘Whoever believes in me, a stream of living
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e water will pour from within him’’ (Christianity: John 7:38), and ‘‘The life has
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e been created in water’’ (Hinduism: Atharvaveda, Asthagarideyam).
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. n 06 Inhisquesttoquenchaseeminglyinsatiablehunger,modernmanhasplayed
o havocwithnatureanditspreciousgifts.Outofthetotalenormousquantityof
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he wateravailableontheEarth,barelyasmallfractionofitispotableanditisone
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bli ofthemostscarcecommoditiesinsomepartsoftheworld.Ontheotherhand,
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P inmanyotherplacesthegrossabuseofwaterhasthreatenedtheveryprocessof
obtaining pure potable water from the hydrosphere. The curse of modern
industrialization is that while extracting some useful and meaningful
substances,significantamountsofpollutantsarereleasedintotheenvironment.
Thisishowwehaveheavilypollutedthewater,air,andsoil.Inadequateaccess
to clean water is one of the most pervasive problems afflicting people
throughout the world. Problems with water are expected to grow worse in the
coming decades. Global water scarcity is likely to affect even those regions
currently considered water-rich. Unless new ways to supply clean water are
found, this situation will inevitably eventually lead to wars for water.
Theancientcivilizations,knowingwaterasavitalelementforlife,werevery
particulartomaintainitpureandfreefromanykindofpollution.The‘‘Manu
RSCGreenChemistryNo.23
GreenMaterialsforSustainableWaterRemediationandTreatment
EditedbyAnuradhaMishraandJamesH.Clark
rTheRoyalSocietyofChemistry2013
PublishedbytheRoyalSocietyofChemistry,www.rsc.org
v
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vi Preface
Smriti’’, an Indian scripture, stresses at several places the importance to keep
water clean. The ‘‘Padma Purana’’ forcefully condemns the person who
pollutes water resources. The need for pure water resulted in the development
ofwaterpurificationmethods.Thesemethodsprovidedthefoundationforthe
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0 development of modern-day methods of purifying water. Ancient civilizations
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F thatdevelopedearlywaterpurificationmethodsincludethoselocatedinAfrica,
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0 Asia, especially India and the Middle East, and Europe. On the American
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3 continent, archeological evidence suggests that the ancient Mayan civilization
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4 used an aqueduct technology, similar to that used by the Romans much later,
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8 to provide water to urban residents. Methods to assess and maintain water
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10 in Ayurveda, the oldest known health care system. Varahamihira, an ancient
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1 Indian scientist, presented methods for obtaining potable water from a
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d contaminated source using plants, metals, and heat. Ayurveda prescribed a
org | water purification method for drinking purposes by using various flowers and
sc. fruits. Ayurveda, as per ‘‘Sushutra Sutra’’, also prescribed a few other
bs.r substances like clearing nuts, Gomedka, lotus bulbs, moss, pearls, thick cloth,
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htt water.
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mb saivalamula vastrani muktamanisceti
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6 – Sushruta Sutra 45.13
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d Muchlater,in2000BC,theIndiansandGreeksstartedboilingwater,sand,
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blis and gravel filtration, and straining methods for the purification of water. The
Pu main driving force for the earliest water treatment processes was perhaps the
taste and turbidity of water. At that time the concept of microorganisms or
chemicalcontaminantswasprobablyunknown.After1500BC,thecoagulation
process,inwhichachemical,alum,wasusedforsuspendedparticlesettlement,
had been started in ancient Egypt. Pictures of this purification technique were
foundonthewallsofthetombsofAmenophisIIandRamsesII.After500BC,
Hippocrates, the father of modern medicine, discovered the healing powers of
water.Heinventedthepracticeofsievingwater,andcreatedthefirstbagfilter,
whichwascalledthe‘‘Hippocraticsleeve’’.Themainpurposeofthebagwasto
trapsedimentsthatcausedbadtastesorodorsinwater.Later,intheyear1627,
water treatment history continued as Sir Francis Bacon started experimenting
withseawater desalinationthrough anunsophisticatedformofsandfiltration.
He did not get the desired success but his work did pave the way for further
experimentation by other scientists. In the 1700s the first water filters made of
wool, sponge, and charcoal came into existence. In 1804 the first actual
municipalwatertreatmentplantbasedonslowsandfiltrationwasdesignedby
RobertThominScotland.Inthe19thcentury,theeffectofdisinfectants,such
as chlorine, was discovered. In 1854, during the time of a cholera outbreak,
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Preface vii
John Snow, a British scientist, applied chlorine to purify water, and this
established the route for water disinfection. Along with this, ion exchangers
were also developed for water softening. In the late 1890s, America started
building large sand filters for water to protect public health. In 1902, calcium
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0 hypochlorite and ferric chloride were mixed in a drinking water supply in
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0 usedasadisinfectantforthefirst timein France. In the1970s, peoplebecame
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4 residuesandindustrialsludge.Manytechniquessuchasaeration,flocculation,
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8 and activated carbon adsorption were used to combat water pollution. In the
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10 Therehavebeenseveralnewdevelopmentsinthewatertreatmentfieldinthe
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d issues of disinfection, decontamination, and desalination. These water
org | treatment methods are heavily dependent on large supplies of chemicals and
sc. energy.Theyalsorequirehugeoperationalcomplexityandarefocusedonlarge
bs.r systems requiring considerable infusion of capital, engineering expertise, and
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htt Materials commonly used in these technologies are sediment filters, activated
on carbon, water softeners, ion exchangers, ceramics, activated alumina, organic
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1 polymers, and many hybrid materials.
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er 2 Environmental considerations demand the development of strong, econ-
mb omicallyviableandeco-friendly replacementsforconventionalmethods.Such
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6 and which tend to degrade naturally if ever released in the environment. It is
. n 0 also important to develop technologies which consume less energy and have
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d minimal effect on global warming. Green remediation is the practice of
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blis minimizing the environmental footprint of cleanup actions. It considers all
Pu environmentaleffectsofcleaningupacontaminatedsite.Greenandsustainable
remediation of water is a rapidly growing field of interest to one and all:
governmental agencies, corporations, academia, environmental consultants,
publicinterestgroups,andindividuals.Withtheadvancementofscienceinthe
21stcentury,scientistsarenowabletocreatelighterandstrongermaterialsfor
remediation of contaminated water which are not detrimental to our
environment. Sources for such green materials include a wide range, from
inorganic to organic to hybrid and from plant biomass to animal biomass,
non-porous to porous, microbial to antimicrobial, and from solids to liquids.
Inlightoftheaboveconsiderations,afocusedsetofarticlescoveringarange
of green materials for water remediation has been included in this book.
Chapter 1 discusses the guidelines being followed for materials to be used for
water remediation. It also discusses the directives given by the various world
authorities in this regard. The information in this chapter provides the basic
starting knowledge to new researchers in the field.
Chapter 2 presents a generalized and yet comprehensive view of available
green technologies covering all biological and chemical methods, as well as
their processes and applications for metal remediation. Chapter 3 gives a
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viii Preface
compilationofstudiesdonebyresearchersonplantbiomass-basedmaterialsas
treatment agentsfortheremovalofheavymetalsfromwastewater.Themajor
advantages of biosorption over conventional treatment methods include low
cost,minimizationofchemicaland/orbiologicalsludge,noadditionalnutrient
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10 complexing agents on the surface of an inorganic or organic solid support is
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d that can be exploited for specific metal extraction. Chapter 6 presents func-
org | tionalized silica gel, an organic–inorganic hybrid material, for metal
sc. remediation.Easeofsynthesisofthesegreenmaterialsisdiscussed,alongwith
bs.r methods based on solid-phase extraction using them for the separation and
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htt Chapter7presentsnanotechnologiesdevelopedrapidlyinthepastdecadefor
on water remediation. It gives an account of various types of nanomaterials
13 evaluated/being evaluated as functional materials for water purification, e.g.
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mb zeolites, photocatalysts, magnetic nanoparticles, and dendrimers.
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. n 0 processes due to many fascinating properties and having the potential to
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blis systems, i.e. hydrophobicity, polarity, efficiency, and selectivity, can be tailor-
Pu made using ionic liquids. They are used for simple biphasic liquid–liquid
extractions, liquid-phase micro-extractions, ionic liquid-based solid-phase
micro-extractions, thin layer chromatographic and high-performance liquid
chromatographic methods, electro-migration methods, gas–liquid chromato-
graphic methods, and supported ionic liquid membrane separations.
Chapter 9 describes the composition and structure of periphyton biofilms
studiedinrecentyearsalongwithtwoaspectsoftheirapplication,firstlyinthe
purification of water and secondly in phosphorus release from sediments,
cyanobacterial blooms, and periphyton biofilms. Periphyton communities are
oftenusedasmonitorsofecosystemhealthandindicatorsofcontaminationin
aquatic ecosystems. They are largely phototrophic benthic microbial biofilms.
Owingtotheirmicroporousstructure,complexcomposition,andextracellular
polymericsubstances,periphytonbiofilmsareappliedinwaterandwastewater
treatment. Chapter 10 describes the importance of microorganisms, especially
greenalgae,inwaterremediationprocesses.Usinggreenalgaeforthetreatment
of textile wastewater is slowly making a mark in the field of water treatment.
The mechanisminvolvedand factors affecting biosorptionand theparameters
used for predicting the efficacy of the use of viable green algae are discussed.
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Preface ix
Chapter 11 describes green materials that exhibit ion-exchange properties
andcanundergosurfacemodificationwithpositivelychargedsurfactants.This
propertygivesthemefficiencyforoxoanionremovalfromwater.Thisprocess
of surface modification shows high promise for a fraction of the cost of
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4 pollutedwater.Thebookmaybeofusetostudentsandresearchersinthisfield.
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