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Green and Sustainable Manufacturing of Advanced Materials Green and Sustainable Manufacturing of Advanced Materials Edited by Mrityunjay Singh Tatsuki Ohji Rajiv Asthana AMSTERDAM (cid:127) BOSTON (cid:127) HEIDELBERG (cid:127) LONDON (cid:127) NEW YORK (cid:127) OXFORD PARIS (cid:127) SAN DIEGO (cid:127) SAN FRANCISCO (cid:127) SINGAPORE (cid:127) SYDNEY (cid:127) TOKYO Elsevier Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK 225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02451, USA Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions. This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-0-12-411497-5 For information on all Elsevier publications visit our website at http://store.elsevier.com/ Printed in China Contributors D. Andersson Swerea IVF AB, Mölndal, Sweden R. Asthana University of Wisconsin-Stout, Menomonie, WI, USA Marsha S. Bischel Armstrong World Industries, Inc., Lancaster, PA, USA A. Dinsdale National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, United Kingdom J. Fu School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China Manabu Fukushima National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Nagoya, Japan S. Gupta University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND, USA I. Himoto Department of Molecular Design and Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan Y. Hotta National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Nagoya, Japan Hideki Hyuga National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Nagoya, Japan H. Ipser University of Vienna, Department of Inorganic Chemistry/Materials Chemistry, Wien, Austria Toshihiro Ishikawa Tokyo University of Science, Yamaguchi, Japan Kazumi Kato National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Nagoya, Japan Soshu Kirihara Joining and Welding Research Institute, Center of Excellence for Advanced Structural and Functional Materials Design, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan H. Kita Department of Molecular Design and Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan A. Kondo Joining and Welding Research Institute, Osaka University, Ibaraki city, Osaka, Japan Naoki Kondo National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Nagoya, Japan xvii xviii Contributors Kunihito Koumoto Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan A. Kroupa Institute of Physics of Materials, Brno, Czech Republic Yin Liu Kazuo Inamori School of Engineering, New York State College of Ceramics at Alfred University, Alfred, New York, USA Yoshitake Masuda National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Nagoya, Japan H. Mohrbacher NiobelCon bvba, Schilde, Belgium S. Mucklejohn Ceravision Limited, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom M. Naito Joining and Welding Research Institute, Osaka University, Ibaraki city, Osaka, Japan H. Nakano Cooperative Research Facility Center, Toyohashi University of Technology, Toyohashi, Japan Zuoren Nie Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, China Tatsuki Ohji National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Nagoya, Japan T. Sekino ISIR, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan Shunzo Shimai Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Tokyo, Japan Mrityunjay Singh Ohio Aerospace Institute, Cleveland OH, USA J. Tatami Graduate School of Environment and Information Sciences, Yokohama National University, Yokohama, Japan S. Wada Materials Science and Technology, Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Medical and Engineering, University of Yamanashi, Yamanashi, Japan A. Watson University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom Yiquan Wu Kazuo Inamori School of Engineering, New York State College of Ceramics at Alfred University, Alfred, New York, USA Q. Xu School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China S. Yamashita Department of Molecular Design and Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan Yan Yang Kazuo Inamori School of Engineering, New York State College of Ceramics at Alfred University, Alfred, New York, USA Yu-ichi Yoshizawa National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Nagoya, Japan Preface Over the past several years, sustainability has emerged as a recurring theme that is increasingly recognized as pervading every sphere of human activity. The interdependence of life and the ecosystem in which it resides has begun to drive the need for sustainable growth and development. Perhaps nowhere does the power of sustainability manifest itself more exquisitely than in the development of new materials and manufacturing technology. Future progress in these areas will critically depend on our engagement with sustainable practices in research and technology development. Materials and manufacturing processes constitute a huge segment of global economy. It is thus fitting and proper that current industrial practices and new developments in materials and manufacturing technology orchestrate with the natural capacity of ecosystems. This demands global efforts to conserve energy and materials, as well as a focus on recovery, recycling, and reuse in an envi- ronmentally conscious manner. The integration of green practices is crucial to sustain long-term technological development and the economic competitiveness of modern society as well as future generations. This book addresses green and sustainable practices by focusing on specific classes of materials. The authors are all active and recognized researchers and practitioners in their respective fields and represent universities, industry, and government and private research organizations of eight different nations. We hope that the book offers a vision for future developments and stimulates fresh thinking to integrate green and sustainable practices in diverse materials and manufacturing processes. We also hope that the book meets the educational and research needs of advanced students across multiple academic disciplines. We are grateful to all of our revered authors for their valuable contributions. We thank the publication and editorial staff of Elsevier for their excellent support during the preparation of this book. Mrityunjay Singh, Ohio Aerospace Institute, USA Tatsuki Ohji, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Japan Rajiv Asthana University of Wisconsin-Stout, USA xix Chapter 1 Green and Sustainable Manufacturing of Advanced Materials—Progress and Prospects Mrityunjay Singh1, Tatsuki Ohji2 and R. Asthana3 1Ohio Aerospace Institute, Cleveland, OH, USA, 2National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Nagoya, Japan, 3University of Wisconsin-Stout, Menomonie, WI, USA 1 INTRODUCTION Manufacturing is a substantial part of global economy, and manufacturing practices play a critical role in all aspects of modern life. Green and sustain- able manufacturing has emerged as a globally recognized mandate. Sustainable manufacturing is defined by the U.S. Department of Commerce as “the creating of manufactured products that use processes that are nonpolluting, conserve energy and natural resources, and are economically sound and safe for employ- ees, communities, and consumers” (http://www.nacfam.org/PolicyInitiatives/ SustainableManufacturing/tabid/64/Default.aspx). It has given impetus to de- velopment of green materials and technologies that orchestrate with self-healing and replenishing capability of natural ecosystems. It has focused attention on conservation of energy and precious materials, and recovery, recycling, and re- use in virtually all industrial sectors including but not limited to transportation, agriculture, construction, aerospace, energy, nuclear power, and many others. Historically, industry and governments have been responsive to environmen- tal issues even before sustainability became a recognized global movement. For example, in the United States, a number of acts and Codes of Federal Regulations (CFR) have addressed key environmental issues for several decades. Examples included the Water Pollution Control Act (amended 1987 Clean Water Act), Clean Air Act (amended 1990), Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (amended 1984), Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (1980), and many others. These regulations provided “cradle-to- grave” programs for protecting human health and the environment from the improper management of hazardous materials including toxic effluents. Other Green and Sustainable Manufacturing of Advanced Materials. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-411497-5.00001-1 Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 3 4 PART | I Material Conservation, Recovery, Recycling and Reuse CFRs specifically addressed the health and environmental effects of specific chemicals and materials such as the known carcinogens formaldehyde (29 CFR 1910.1048) and cadmium (29 CFR 19190.1027). Although a focus on sustainable technologies in various forms has been around for a long time in part due to government regulations and sporadic pub- lic support for isolated cases that impacted regional concerns, a paradigm shift toward and awareness of the importance of transformative green and sustainable materials and manufacturing has only recently begun to gain momentum. As a field of academic enquiry and discussion, green manufacturing is relatively young. As an emerging global movement, it has gained considerable traction as part of the broader goals of sustainable development. It is now being increas- ingly recognized that the integration of green practices is crucial to sustainable technological development and the economic competitiveness of current society as well as that of future generations. A number of important and widely practiced industrial processes such as case hardening, plating, casting, brazing, soldering, chemical vapor deposi- tion, organic coatings, and numerous others involve consumption or release of harmful ingredients that are injurious to both human health and the envi- ronment. All such processes and technologies are candidates for a careful reassessment of the efficiencies and structural changes that could potentially make such processes sustainable. A classic example of sustainable practices is the abolition of lead in electrical and electronic assemblies and in public utility systems owing to the possibility of water and food contamination with extremely serious consequences to human health and the environment. Major initiatives in Europe, North America, China, Korea, and elsewhere have either banned or strictly limited lead use. Major global initiatives are currently in progress to develop green substitute materials for lead and similar hazardous and/or scarce metals and materials. Critical materials including rare earths have a major economic and strategic importance, but they are limited in sup- ply. New materials need to be developed in an environmentally conscientious manner to offset the dependence of naturally occurring critical and strategic materials. Another focus area of sustainable development involves component weight reduction by use of light materials (foams, magnesium, and titanium) with high specific strength and other key properties. This is being vigorously pursued for reducing fuel consumption and waste emissions mainly in the transporta- tion sector (automotive and aerospace). This also offers additional benefits of lower losses, higher operating temperatures, and higher engine efficiency. Environmentally friendly materials such as ecoceramics, ecobrass, ecosolders, and ecocoatings, as well as energy-efficient light materials such as foamed met- als and ceramics and composites have gained phenomenal ascendency in re- search and technology. Additionally, energy and emission reduction with the aid of established and novel technology such as microwaves, lasers, and biofuels has become increasingly important. Green and Sustainable Manufacturing Chapter | 1 5 New materials developed from natural and renewable arboreal and biologi- cal resources should continue to gain importance into the future. Ceramics such as silicon carbide developed from such resources consume less energy for their production and less waste for disposal. Environmentally conscious ceramics (ecoceramics) are produced out of renewable resources such as wood. For ex- ample, biomorphic silicon carbide is obtained by pyrolysis and infiltration of natural wood-derived preforms. It reduces energy consumption and chemical by-products of conventional ceramic production methods such as hot pressing, sintering, reaction bonding, and chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Other meth- ods include freeze casting of ceramics and microwave sintering that are devoid of binders and fugitive chemicals. Through conscious intervention, materials and products can be designed and manufactured in a more environmentally friendly manner to facilitate assembly, recycling, and reuse with reduced waste emission and energy consumption. A large proportion of the world’s energy originates from fossil fuels while greener technologies such as nuclear, wind, and hydroelectrics generate the remaining share of total energy. The wide variety of materials used in these technologies—mainly metals, ceramics, and their composites—critically affect the performance of such technologies. Materials are enablers of advanced tech- nology, and their properties and performance determine the system function and efficiency. Conversely, efficient development and production of current and emerging materials depends on the availability of innovative technologies for their production and fabrication. A competitive advantage in technology de- velopment can be accelerated through the development and application of new materials and processes. This complementary symbiotic relationship can help promote and advance sustainable practices with the materials producer, prod- uct designer, and manufacturer working in concert on shared concerns about environmental impact and sustainability while pushing the boundaries of the technology. Over the next several decades, global demand for materials and energy is projected to sharply rise. This inevitably will impact the environment via in- creased carbon emission and energy consumption. In this context, an important goal of sustainability is the training and educational needs of a new genera- tion of workforce that can think and act holistically about “cradle-to-grave” and “cradle-to-cradle” progression of materials and technologies. Many major industrial mishaps in the past have been linked to mistakes that could have been avoided with proper training and awareness. Examples include the mercury ac- cumulated in fish originating from a fertilizer plant in Japan in the 1960s and leakage of toxic methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas from a former Union Carbide plant in India in the 1980s. Nanotechnology is beginning to revolutionize modern manufacturing by of- fering an unprecedented range of functionalities that are possible only in the nano- meter range. Novel functionalities can be achieved via atomic- and molecular-level design paradigms and methods. To achieve these functionalities, manufacturing 6 PART | I Material Conservation, Recovery, Recycling and Reuse is poised to become ever more complex and sophisticated. This will require sus- tainable practices to be built in production and the use or reuse of nanomaterials. Because of the growing push to increase the use of nanomaterials and nanopro- cessing, it is vital that their effect on and interaction with the environment is care- fully assessed lest unanticipated effects of these new materials and technology precipitate into unprecedented harm to the society and the environment. It is thus evident that the environmental impact of materials and their manu- facturing and use are vital to technological progress of modern society. In the past, performance attributes and issues related to the cost of materials and man- ufacturing were given precedence over environmental concerns, recyclability, and reuse. There is now a shift toward addressing in a comprehensive fashion all of the environmental attributes of materials, manufacturing, and products via green and sustainable practices and life-cycle assessment (LCA). This includes such vital issues as carbon footprint and global warming. 2 FOCUS AREAS This book attempts to provide snapshots of selected developments and practices in green and sustainable manufacturing, focusing mainly on new material and process development. It does not purport to be a compendium on this vastly important topic but rather a contemporary resource for up-to-date information on select new developments. The collective knowledge about state-of-the-art and new developments in green and sustainable manufacturing of advanced materials from diverse fields presented in the following chapters is intended to provide further impetus to research and exploration. The following survey provides a brief overview of the main topics and issues that are discussed in different chapters. 2.1 Material Conservation, Recovery, and Recycling In this chapter, we present a brief overview of how the development and man- ufacturing of advanced materials influence and are influenced by sustainable practices to serve as a backdrop for the issues and themes that subsequent chap- ters develop in greater depth. It is argued that future progress in developing new materials and manufacturing processes to produce them will critically de- pend upon purposeful engagement with sustainable practices in research and technology. In Chapter 2, Bischel from Armstrong World Industries offers in- sights into holistic assessment of material sustainability that relies on multiple rather than single attributes in defining the material’s environmental impact. She advocates design philosophies that concurrently and seamlessly address multiple areas of material performance and sustainability and expose conflicts and trade-offs among attributes, thereby facilitating a more complete evaluation of the environmental impact of a product over its life span. The cornerstones of such a holistic approach include LCAs, environmental product declarations, and

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