Grasslands: Developments, Opportunities, Perspectives

556 Pages·2019·135.041 MB·English

by  Stephen G. Reynolds

Grasslands:
Developments
Opportunities
Perspectives
Edited by
S.G. Reynolds and J. Frame
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Rome
Boca Raton London New York
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FOREWORD
Grasslands cover a very large portion of the earth's surface and are important as a feed source for
livestock, as a habitat for wildlife, for environmental protection and for the in situ conservation of
plant genetic resources. In both developed and developing countries, many millions of livestock
farmers, ranchers and pastoralists depend on grasslands and conserved products such as hay and
silage and on a range of fodder crops for their livelihoods. Rapid increases in human and livestock
populations have contributed to increased pressures on the multi-functional role of the world's
grasslands, particularly in arid and semi-arid environments, and in many countries the phenomenon
of climatic change is causing concern in terms of future growing conditions. How can the world
feed its ever-increasing population and what can we expect from grasslands in future? What prospects
and opportunities are there to ensure that not only can we maintain the present level of livestock
production from grasslands but that production can be increased in terms of both quantity and
quality?
Worldwide, scientists are focusing on identifying new improved grass and legume cultivars, and
on improved methods of hay and silage making, with a concurrent debate as to the role and
importance of biotechnology and its applications in enhancing forage supply for livestock. With the
move towards more intensive production systems, concern is being raised about loss of biodiversity
in grasslands and increased environmental pollution. In view of some of the problems associated
with intensive systems of livestock production, there is an increasing focus in some countries on
extending natural grass-based systems of meat and milk production and on organic systems of
production. For some, the increased use of geographical information systems holds the key to more
rational use of the grassland resource and the monitoring of grassland condition. In other areas of
the world there is good farmer contact by extension services and farmers are fully involved in
evaluating new technologies, while in some areas farmers are rarely consulted by government
officers and have little opportunity to participate in decision-making processes. This book examines
many of these aspects, focuses on grassland and forage production systems in different countries
and regions, and also assesses the likely future developments through chapters by experts and
leading scientists from fifteen different countries. Researchers, grassland scientists and policy-makers
will find the material useful and the book will contribute towards the debate on the future of
grasslands and their role in feeding the ever increasing world population.
Thanks are particularly given to Stephen Reynolds of the Grassland and Pasture Crops Group in
the FAO Crop and Grassland Service who conceived the idea for the book and who, with co-editor
John Frame - a Life President of the European Grassland Federation and well known grassland
scientist - ensured that the book was brought to publication.
Mahmoud Solh
Director
Plant Production and Protection Division
Agriculture Department
FAO, Rome, Italy

PREFACE
The start of a new millennium is perhaps an appropriate time to remind ourselves that the world's
resources have been harnessed to cope with a global population that has doubled from some 3
billion to over 6 billion in the past 40 years alone (Diouf, 2002). To feed the nearly 8 billion people
expected on earth by 2025 and to assure the long-term adequacy of world food supplies, the world
will have to double food production and improve its distribution (UNFPA, 2001). Since available
croplands are shrinking and grasslands are already heavily stocked, most future production will
have to come from higher crop yields or increased animal output through better feeding of livestock,
rather than from new areas of cultivated or grazing land. This prospect looms at a time when
unsustainable and environmentally unsound polices and practices have already caused widespread
degradation of the environment and increased people's vulnerability to food shortages (UNEP,
2002). Therefore, a crucial agricultural dilemma is how to find a balance between a fast growing
global demand for food and the need to sustain the natural resource base of land, water, air and
biological diversity for the future (Steinfeld, de Haan and Blackburn, 1997).
A large portion of the earth's surface is covered by grasslands, between 20 and 40 percent
depending on the definition of grassland used (CBD, 2002; White, Murray and Rohweder, 2000),
with estimates for rangeland cover varying between 31 and 51 percent of the land surface (according
to IPCC, 2001 quoting from Allen-Diaz, 1996 and WRI, 2000), and these grass- and rangelands
contribute significantly in terms of products and services and to mankind's well-being. White,
Murray and Rohweder (2000) indicate that grasslands, which they consider to cover 41 percent of
the land's surface, provide livelihoods for nearly 800 million people, as well as forage for livestock,
wildlife habitats, carbon and water storage, renewable energy, recreation and tourism. Grasslands
remain the primary source of genetic material for improving our food crops, and have been the
source of an increasing number of pharmaceuticals. In Western Europe, grasslands occupy almost
40 percent of the agricultural area (Peeters, 2004) and in some countries the proportion is higher
(Austria, 57%; Ireland, 76%; Switzerland, 72%; United Kingdom, 65%). For almost 200 million
people worldwide, grazing livestock is probably the only possible source of livelihood. A significant
statistic is that rangelands cover an area that is more than double the world's cropped area.
Grasslands also protect the watershed areas of many of the world's most important river systems.
Again, since most farming is carried out as mixed crop-livestock farming, covering some 2.5 billion
hectares of land, it is the nutrition from pastures, fodder trees, fodder crops and crop residues that
ensure livestock provide both human food and goods for sale, draught power, and manure to
enrich the soil (Anon, 2003).
A number of recent studies have focused on grassland deterioration and the degradation of the
world's grassland areas, and it is not the intention to repeat here the type of study on the status of
grassland ecosystems recently published by the World Resources Institute (White, Murray and
Rohweder, 2000). There have also been many studies on biodiversity, biotechnology and the effects
of climatic change, but few publications have focused attention on these - and a range of other
subjects - as they relate to grasslands. This book looks at grasslands from the viewpoint of a
number of specialists and brings these studies together within one cover.
VI Grasslands: Developments Opportunities Perspectives
Some key questions are:
• What is the status of some of the grasslands and is there new grass and legume germplasm in
the pipeline?
• What are some of the fundamental pasture and fodder crop issues and problems in crop-
livestock farming?
• What developments are likely in forage conservation?
• What are some of the main issues facing pastoralists and farmers in the next 10-20 years for
both extensively and intensively used grasslands?
• Will climate change influence grassland production and utilization?
• Can biotechnology provide some of the answers?
• Is there greater need to focus animal production on conventional grass-based systems, or even
on organic production systems?
• Can better management ensure greater sustainability and biodiversity of grasslands and should
we be considering grasslands within an ecosystems approach?
• How useful is the application of remote-sensing technology and Geographical Information
Systems (GlS)-based forage species adaption mapping?
• In extension, is there need for a more participatory approach, where farmers and pastoralists
are closely involved in decision-making processes that affect them and their future?
• What are the lessons of global relevance to be learned from regional studies?
The purpose of this book, which brings together 21 chapters by authors or co-authors from
various parts of the world, is to examine these questions and offer potential answers and solutions
for both the short and long term. The need is urgent, in the light of the continued degradation and
resource exploitation of much of the world's grasslands, and hence their declining ability to support
and sustain plant, ruminant, animal and human life (White, Murray and Rohweder, 2000). The
book will provide a valuable source of information and reference for researchers, advisers and
national policy-makers. Importantly, it helps to identify gaps in knowledge and focus attention on
areas where further research and development are needed.
The chapters are grouped into seven themed sections.
Forage Germplasm comprises four chapters on the prospects for forage legumes: in temperate
areas, in Mediterranean-climatic regions, in tropical zones, and for forage tree legumes in different
agro-ecological zones. Apart from their well-documented N2-fixing capability, the general superiority
of legume forage to grass forage in nutritive value, voluntary feed intake and nutrient availability is
affirmed. Continuing research is revealing the role in animal nutrition of condensed tannins, which
are constituents of many leguminous species. A notable feature, common to environments from cool
temperate to hot tropical, is the vast range of germplasm available, from which only a small
proportion has as yet been utilized in plant breeding and practical farming. A similar scenario is
highlighted for grasses in the tropical zone discourse, and a plea made for enhanced grass species
diversity through plant breeding programmes and the use of this diversity at farm, regional and
country level to ensure the robustness of grassland in the face of various adverse factors - edaphic,
climatic, biotic - that can occur. The neotropical savannah ecosystem, with 250 million hectares of
well drained soils, constitutes the largest area of undeveloped land resources and is one of the
world's most important future food sources. A general point made by all the authors is the benefit
that would accrue from greater international cooperation in research and development.
In Forage Conservation, silage and hay preservation are dealt with separately. The technology of
silage making is discussed, along with its current and prospective roles in different regions of the
Preface VII
world. Reliable techniques now exist, mainly due to innovations in recent decades, but there is still
scope and need to limit losses in nutritive value during ensiling, and to reduce costs and resource
inputs. In tropical and subtropical countries, silage making is forecast to increase as suitable
techniques are developed to handle the range of forages and crop by-products available. Haying
systems are still important in many parts of the world, with methods ranging from traditional
harvesting by hand, through highly mechanized round, square or densified bales, to pelleting
systems. However, in spite of past technical developments, weather during hay making is still the
major controlling factor in its success.
In the Grass-based Systems and Organic Production section, the three main drivers forecast to affect
milk and meat production are a general increase in global demand, particularly from populous
China and Southeast Asia; public concern about the environmental impact of agricultural practices;
and consumer concern about animal welfare, food quality and food safety. In these contexts, grass-
based systems are likely to be viewed favourably. Fuelled by these concerns, interest in and demand
for organic food production has increased dramatically in recent years. Thus the timely chapter on
organic farming (also called biological or ecological agriculture) deals with its principles, practices
and potential. Statutory support schemes to encourage conversion from conventional to organic
farming have been initiated in many countries, but its growth is dependent on the willingness of
the consumer to pay a premium for the products. The New Zealand model of pastoral resource use
serves as an example of efficient conventional milk and meat production through its emphasis on
effective use of grazed forage, the production of which is underpinned by the legume, white clover.
The model highlights the dynamic nature of the pastoral industries in their flexible response to
export market conditions and opportunities.
In Climatic Changes, Biodiversity and Biotechnology, global climate change, with higher temperatures
and more intense precipitation events, is foreseen to require grassland management modifications
to counteract both above- and below-ground ecological consequences. At present, the ability to
predict and prepare for change is limited and so it is necessary to develop proactive strategies and
technologies for the future, especially to take the multi-factor nature of global change into account.
Changes in land use and ground cover, in response to pressures for food and fibres, are to blame for
loss of biodiversity in grasslands and associated species extinction rates. Grassland management
needs to be adjusted, with maintenance of biodiversity being an objective in addition to forage
production and animal output. A review of modem biotechnological approaches to grass and
legume varietal improvement is presented. Though concentrating on temperate forage species,
potential applications of biotechnology are germane across other climatic ranges. Progress in genome
analysis, mapping, marker-assisted selection, introgression and transformation is summarized. It is
expected that the end result will be a flow of novel forage varieties, not least with improved nutritional
quality parameters.
The section, Geographical Information Systems (GIS), considers adaptation mapping of forage species
based on GIS and the application of remote sensing technology to grassland resource management.
These technologies are particularly suitable for large countries or regions with diverse environments.
The thrust of the GIS chapter is that better matching of plants to site conditions would enhance
economic returns and reduce environmental hazards associated with suboptimal performance.
Essentially, the matching is done by integrating a matrix of plant species characteristics into a
database of climatic and soil criteria. The application of remote sensing technology for grassland
resource management and livestock production is exemplified by its use in China, where changes
in grassland production, utilization, degradation and nature conservation value have been assessed.
viii Grasslands: Developments Opportunities Perspectives
Other practical offshoots include snow cover and depth gauging, grassland fire incidence, drought
monitoring and land use changes.
In Farmer and Pastoralist Participation, the development and impact of new forages, together with
opportunities, are discussed in relation to smallholder livestock systems in Southeast Asia. Another
presentation discusses the role of pastoralists in the development of rangeland in West Asia and
North Africa. Against a background of increasing demand for livestock products and degradation
of traditional feed resources, which include natural grazing and crop or tree by-products, farmers
in Southeast Asia are having to adjust to the new idea of creating improved grass and legume
swards. Success requires that they become involved early in the species and varieties testing and
selection process together with extensionists and researchers. A notable point is the high potential
of forage use for non-ruminants, especially pigs, poultry and fish. In countries of West Asia and
North Africa, centralised rehabilitation and grazing schemes to increase the productivity of the
steppe rangelands have resulted in degradation of the resource base, including its biodiversity.
Future success is adjudged to rest upon greater involvement of pastoralists and their associated
institutions, that is, using a 'bottom up' rather than a 'top down' approach.
The final section, entitled Regional Developments, discusses developments from contrasting
environments, though mainly in the Southern Hemisphere. In Southeast Asia, the integration of
forage, tree crops and livestock is debated in relation to its potential for a sustainable ruminant
industry. It is concluded that further advances will hinge upon multilateral partnership among
research institutes, government agencies and plantation entrepreneurs. In eastern Africa, over 80
percent of milk produced in improved dairying enterprises comes from intensively managed forage-
based smallholdings. Increased human population and decreased farm size has led to this increased
intensification. The discourse on the relationship in Patagonia, Argentina, between grassland sheep
farming and rural depopulation notes that in recent decades adverse economic conditions have led
to a 50 percent decline in sheep stocks, lack of capital investment, and consequent human
depopulation. The solution posited to solve these problems lies in significant infrastructural changes,
sustainable utilization of the grasslands, production of diverse high-quality products, and improved
living conditions for the rural population. To achieve these targets, public funding and special
technical assistance would be necessary. The discussion on Australian temperate grasslands
illustrates how management progressed from an exploitive phase to a reactive phase. While the
former saw the rapid expansion of livestock farming, this led to overexploitation, characterized by
expansion into new areas and by pasture renovation through introduction of improved grassland
species. It is concluded that future management will require a pro-active approach based on the
development of sustainable and environmentally friendly farming systems, supported by research
and extension programmes. The future for savannah and tropical grasslands is discussed from a
Latin American perspective. Grassland-based animal production has increased, with milk production
in particular benefiting from advances in technology. However, land and grassland degradation
have also become evident and appropriate ameliorative measures are emerging. The industry is
becoming more market-oriented than before, including diversification into a greater range of final
products. While some societal and environmental concerns are arising, the signs point to the
development of a vibrant pastoral industry.
S.G. Reynolds and J. Frame
Rome, 2004
Preface IX
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