Grant, Alison Elizabeth (2003) Scandinavian place-names in northern Britain as evidence for ...

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Grant, Alison Elizabeth (2003) Scandinavian place-names in northern
Britain as evidence for language contact and interaction. PhD thesis.

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Scandinavian
Place-Names in Northern Britain
Evidence for Language Contact
as
and
Interaction
Thesis by
submitted
Alison Elizabeth Grant
(Department
English Language,
University
of
of
Glasgow)
For
the degree Ph. D.
of
November
2003
i
Abstract
My
thesis types
consists of an examination of various of place-name
formations, linguistic interaction
the
as evidence of contact and which occurred
between incoming Scandinavian
the
speakers and native population of northern
Britain, in light language The first
of current theories of contact. chapter analyses the
between Scandinavian Celtic in
the
nature of relationship and speakers areas of
in Scotland, how this is likely to have
primary settlement and considers relationship
language in
the the toponymy
affected and, more specifically, regions of secondary
settlement such as the North-West of England, the South-West of Scotland and the
Isle Man.
of
The four different types formation
subsequent chapters examine of place-name
found in Scandinavian inversion-
these
which are chiefly secondary settlements:
&rgi kirk- bý Each
compound names, names, compound names and names. chapter
looks the distribution investigates how
at nature and of one of these groups, and
language
including bilingualism, lexical borrowing
contact phenomena
and
have influenced form development
susbstratum. transfer may the and of such name-
types. I have that differing linguistic both in
types
concluded of contact, occurring
for differing
primary and secondary settlement areas, may account the
usage and
distribution
the four The inception inversion-
of categories of place-names. of the
has been
it is
compounds re-evaluated and argued that rather than having been
coined
by Scandinavians influenced by Celtic
who were word-order, these
names were
instead by Gaelic-speakers had
created who shifted to the Scandinavian language. It
is
that the distribution
also argued more widespread in &rgi in
of names
comparison
the inversion is due
with names not to the two being by
groups of names coined
different
immigrants, because
groups of nor the dissemination
of secondary the
of
ii
&rgi had been
element amongst non-Scandinavian speakers, as previously suggested.
Rather, the disparity in distribution is likely to the fact that the
reflect d', rgi narnes
from the lexical transfer Gaelic into the
result straightforward of a element
Scandinavian language, the inversion by
whereas narnes were created a specific
bilingual Scandinavian In
the the
substrate element amongst settlers. case of
inversion-compounds initial kirk- it is
the that than
with element argued rather
translations English drice- Gaelic the
representing partial of or cill- names, names
kirk- Gaelic-Scandinavian The
were coined as compounds within a context.
Scottish 'distribution
this toponymic
predominantly of group reflects secondary
dissemination the Gaelic-speakers in the South-
of name-type amongst monolingual
West. In the in bý, it is that this do
case of names argued group not represent a purely
Danish Irish has been
wave of settlement throughout the seaboard, as previously
Rather, linguistic between Danes Norwegians, later
suggested. contact and and
English-speakers, led
to the this
more widespread utilisation of element.
iii
Table Contents
of
Paize
Preface
Chapter One: Language Contact in the British Isles 1
66
Chapter Two: The Inversion-Compounds
Chapter Three: The., Ergi Names 128
Chapter Four: The Kirk- Compounds 178
254
Chapter Five: The Bý Names
314
Distribution Maps
Appendix A: Inversion-Compounds Data 328
trgi
Appendix B: Names Data 345
Appendix C: Kirk- Compounds Data 373
Appendix D: Bý Names Data 399
Bibliography
410
iv
Preface
The is five its
thesis
structured as self-contained chapters, each with own
introduction As introductory
there
and conclusion. such, are no separate or
Chapter One is intended introduction
to the
concluding chapters, although as a general
discussed in later Since distribution
topics the the the
chapters. geographical of place-
discussed is I have drawn distribution
to the thesis, twelve
names central also maps,
in five. There four
together the
which are gathered map section after chapter are also
divided into detailed information
the
appendices, sections, containing on corpus of
investigation, including lists instances
the
place-names under complete of all of each
in information
type of name occurring the relevant areas, together with etymological
lists historical forms.
and of
As the I have in the
so many of reference works used course of my research
the demarcation I have followed
make use of pre-1974 county system, this
convention, both in the text thesis in the drawing distribution
of my and of maps.
I like to thank Carole Hough for her help both
would my supervisor all with
form
the the thesis, for her during its
and content of and valuable advice and support
My into
production. research the the North-West England has
place-names of of
also
been
by
greatly aided previous work done on this region by Gillian Fellows-Jensen,
particularly her book Scandinavian Settlement Names in the North-West, but
also
listed in bibliography.
many other articles which are the Many the theories
of
put
forward in
these have helped
to
works
shape my own views on the nomenclature of
England
Scotland.
northern and also southern
Additionally, I would thank Richard Cox, Arne Kruse, W. F. H. Nicolaisen,
Tom Schmidt Jeremy Smith for
help
and their discussions ideas
and the
whilst
in
presented the thesis taking
were shape, although the
of course, any errors within
V
like
I to thank the the
text are entirely my own. would also organisers of conferences
held by the Scottish Place-Name Society the Society for Name Studies in Britain
and
Ireland for to the thesis
and allowing me present parts of as conference papers at an
development.
their
early stage of
vi
Chapter One: Languate Contact in the British Isles
1. Introduction
In I issue language between incoming
this the
chapter will examine of contact
in
Scandinavians Scandinavian
the
and native population areas of primary settlement.
The focus be the Norwegian the Northern Western Isles
main will on settlement of and of
Scotland, language in
the types these
as an understanding of of contact which occurred
is before how itself in
to this the
regions necessary going on examine contact manifested
in
Scandinavian the South-West
place-names areas of secondary settlement such as of
Scotland the North-West England.
and
of
Firstly, the island be it
the
nature and extent of settlements will analysed, and will
be that despite the lack Celtic the indigenous
argued of extant place-names, population
These be in light
the
were not expelled or exterminated. early settlements will examined
Scandinavian in England, for detailed linguistic
of settlement which models of contact
between the Scandinavians English-speakers have been devised. Using
the these
and
models as a guideline, the various types of language contact occurring in the Northern
Western Isles be Additionally, Scandinavian loan-words into both
and will explored.
Gaelic English be it be
and that the two
will examined, and will argued
groups are
representative of differing types of language contact. Finally, the Scandinavian
in
the Northern Western Isles be
settlements Anglo-Saxon
and will compared with the
in England, large-scale Germanic
settlement Celtic
where replacement toponyms;
of
also
occurred, with a view to explaining the lack in Scottish
of place-name the
survival
settlements.
I
2. Early Scandinavian Contact in the Northern Western Isles
and
2(a) Pre-Scandinavian Seftlement
The in the Northern
nature and extent of pre-Scandinavian settlement and
Western Isles Scotland has been the debate. This is largely due
of subject of considerable
be dated
to the to the
paucity of surviving place-names which can clearly pre-
Scandinavian Early MacBain, that this have been
era. scholars, such as considered must
due to the violence of the Viking invasions, with the native population being killed or
driven
out,
[i]n Shetland, as in the Faroes, they were probably the first colonists.
I
Orkney they the Celts the Hebrides.
subdued completely, and swept out of
Later, Brogger for Scandinavian that
argued a more peaceful settlement, and suggested
lack due lack 'scanty
the to
of surviving names was a of people, with only a native
the beginning the Norse the 'for the
population at of settlement', majority of which were
2
limited to the Scotland'. Brogger that the Northern
greater part mainland of suggested
Isles have been largely depopulated by Scandinavian
the time
would of settlement, and
incoming Scandinavians have found 'traces houses farms,
that the
would only of old and
3
foundations'. Similarly, Western Isles, Scott
ruins and to the that
with regard considered
the Hebrides that 'the Northern Hebrides
only southem were populated, and
were
4
).
relatively empty
1
MacBain, 'The Norse Element in the Topography of the Highlands and Islands', p. 21 S.
2
Brogger, Ancient Emigrants, 66 58.
pp. and
3
Ibid, 67.
p.
4
SCott, 'The Norse in the Hebrides', 212.
p.
2
Like Brogger, Shetelig the Northern Isles to have been thinly
very
considered
Scandinavians,
populated prior to the arrival of the with only
but
hermits, Celtic
few hish
a monks and possibly scattered elements, no
densely districts, local into the Norse
settled not a solid community which
5
forced
their
way.
In Western Isles, however, Shetelig 'the Norwegians
the the considered mingled
case of
...
6
'a Celtic Gaelic there'.
with a native people', who were population already settled
- -
In 1962, Wainwright that the Northern Isles must also have had a native
argued
Scandinavian invasions. He that there Ogarn
the time the pointed out are
population at of
datable
inscriptions found in both Orkney Shetland to the
and which are eighth or ninth
7
least into
This the
the group at
centuries. would suggest survival of a non-Scandinavian
8
Bressay Stone in Shetland
Scandinavian Wainwright that the
may
early period. noted
9
indicate
Old Norse for daughter, to
even contain the word which would appear not only
linguistic between
but this
the survival of the native population, the occurrence of contact
incoming Scandinavians. Additionally, Wainwright that
the argued
group and
Scandinavian incorporating ON Pettr Tict' ON
place-names the elements and pap!
10
'monk, hermit' (< OIrpapa) indigenous
pointed to the presence of an population.
It is based Wainwright's that the Isles did
now generally accepted, on arguments,
have initial Scandinavian
type the time the
some of native population at of settlements.
However, the linguistic these In the the
makeup of people remains unclear. case of
5
Shetelig, An Introduction Viking History Western Europe, 2 1.
to the of p.
6
Ibid, 21 3 1.
pp. and
7
Wainwright, Ticts Scots', 96-98.
and pp.
8
Cox has in fact suggested that these Ogam scripts may have been written in Old Norse. However, this
theory has not met with widespread acceptance. See Bames, ' "The Language the Ogam Inscriptions
of of
Scotland" by Richard Cox: A Review Article', 129-139.
pp.
9
Wainwright, Ticts Scots', 98.
and p.
10
Ibid, 100.
p.
3