Grace and the Human Condition

160 Pages·080.9 MB·English

by  Peter C. Phan

MESSAGE OF THE FATHERS OF THE CHURCH
MESSAGE OF THE FATHERS OF THE CHURCH
General Editor: Thomas Halton
GRACE AND
THE
Volume 15 HUMAN CONDITION
by
Peter C. Phan
Jl
Michael Glazier
Wilmington, Delaware
~
About the Author
PETER C. PHAN graduated summa cum laude from the
University of London where he read French, Latin, and
philosophy. He holds an S.T.D. degree from the Salesian
Pontifical University, Rome, and a Ph.D. degree from the
University of London. Besides contributing numerous articles To
to learned and popular journals, he has written several books, Achille Triacca, SD.B.
including Social Thought: Message of the Fathers of the Maestro dello spirito
Church; Culture and Eschatology: The Iconographical Vision
with profound gratitude
of Paul Evdokimov, and Eternity in Time: A Study of Karl
Rahner's Eschatology. Formerly a professor of Theology at
the University of Dallas, Texas, he presently teaches systematic
theology at the Catholic University of America.
First published in 1988 by Michael Glazier, Inc., 1935 West Fourth Street,
Wilmington, Delaware 19805.
Copyright ©1988by Michael Glazier, Inc. All rights reserved.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Phan, Peter c., 1943-
Grace and the human condition.
(Message of the fathers of the church; 15)
Bibliography: p. 31I
Includes Index.
I. Man (Christian theology)-History ofdoctrines-Early church, ca. 30-600.2.
Grace (Theology)-History of doctrines-Early church, ca 30-600. 3. Fathers of
the church. I.Title. II. Series: Message of the fathers of the church; v. 15.
BT701.2.P443 1988 233'.09'015 88-8246 I
ISB 0-89453-355-0
ISB 0-89453-326-6 (pbk.)
Message of the Fathers of the Church series:
ISB 0-89453-340-1
ISB 0-89453-312-6 (pbk.)
Typography by Phyllis Boyd LeVane
Printed inthe United States of America SM
093745
Acknowledgments
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Generous use has been made of the standard English translations of the
Fathers in such series as Ancient Christian Writers, Fathers of the
Church, Ante-Nicene Fathers and Post-Nicene Fathers, often with
adaptations and sometimes with corrections. ~nall cases the translations
were checked with the original Greek and Latin texts Inthe best editions
available.
Editor's Introduction .
5
Preface .
7
Introduction .
9
I. Pre-Irenean Anthropology .
21
2. Irenaeus and the Struggle Against Gnosticism 43
3. Alexandrian Anthropology: Clement and Origen . 64
4. African Anthropology . 98
5. Athanasius and Cyril of Alexandria . 121
6. The Cappadocian Fathers . . 153
7. Antiochene Anthropology: John Chrysostom
194
8. Ambrose of Milan (c. 333-397) . 208
9. Pelagius, Augustine's Anti-Pelagian Writings
and The Council of Carthage of 418 . 226
10. Augustine, Doctor of Grace . 259
II. Semipelagianism and the Synod of Orange (529)
291
Epilogue .
309
Select Bibliography . 3II
Index . 313
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION
Abbreviations
The Message oj the Fathers oj the Church isa companion
series to The Old Testament Message and The New Testament
Message. It was conceived and planned in the belief that
Scripture and Tradition worked hand in hand in the forma-
tion of the thought, lifeand worship of the primitive Church.
Such a series, it was felt, would be a most effective way of
opening up what has become virtually a closed book to
AAS Acta Apostolicae Sedis present-day readers, and might serve to stimulate a revival in
ACW Ancient Christian Writers interest in Patristic studies in step with the recent, gratifying
ACO Acta Conciliorum Oecumenicorum, resurgence in Scriptural studies.
ed. E. Schwartz The term "Fathers" isusually reserved for Christian writers
ANF Ante-Nicene Fathers marked byorthodoxy ofdoctrine, holiness oflife,ecclesiastical
CCL Corpus Christianorum, Series latina. . approval and antiquity. 'Antiquity' isgenerally understood to
CSCO Corpus Scriptorum Christ!an~rum Onen~ahum include writers down to Gregory the Great (+604)or Isidore of
CSEL Corpus Scriptorum Eccleslastlcorum Latinorum Seville (+636) in the West, and John Damascene (+749) in the
FOTC Fathers of the Church East. In the present series, however, greater elasticity has been
GCS Die griechischen christlichen Scriftsteller encouraged, and quotations from writers not noted for ortho-
NPNF Nicene and Post- icene Fathers doxy will sometimes be included in order to illustrate the
OECT Oxford Early Christian Texts evolution of the Message on particular doctrinal matters.
PG Migne, Patrologia Graeca Likewise, writers later than the mid-eighth century will some-
PL Migne, Patrologia Latina times be used to illustrate the continuity oftradition on matters
PLS Patrologia Latina, Supplementum like sacramental theology or liturgical practice.
PSt Patristic Studies, Washington, D.C. An earnest attempt was made to select collaborators on a
SC Sources chretiennes broad inter-disciplinary and inter-confessional basis, the chief
Studies in Christian Antiquity, Washington, D.C.
SCA consideration being to match scholars who could handle the
TU Texte und Untersuchungen Fathers in their original languages with subjects in which they
had already demonstrated a special interest and competence.
5
6 Editor's Introduction
About the only editorial directive given to the selected con-
Preface
tributors was that the Fathers, for the most part, should ~e
allowed to speak for themselves and that they shoul? s~e~k
10
readable, reliable modern English. Volumes on individual
themes were considered more suitable than volumes devoted
to individual Fathers; each theme, hopefully, contributing an
important segment to the total mosaic of the Early Ch.urch,
one, holy, catholic and apostolic. Each volume ~as an mtro-
ductory essay outlining the historical and theolo~lcal develop- What does it mean to be human? This is the perennial
ment ofthe theme, with the body ofthe work mainly occup~ed question that has been raised in every age of human history,
with liberal citations from the Fathers in modern Engl.lsh and perhaps at no other times more disturbingly and per-
translation and a minimum of linking commentary. Short lists sistently than in our days. To that question contemporary
of Suggested Further Readings are included; but dense, scho.l- world-views give a host of so diverse and even conflicting
arly footnotes were actively discouraged on the pragmatic answers that the result ismore darkness than light. So people
grounds that such scholarly shorthand has other outlets and continue to ask: What does it mean to be human? What isthe
tends to lose all but the most relentlessly esoteric reader in a meaning ofsuffering, evil,death, which technological progress,
semi-popular series. the modern god in whom we have placed our trust, has not
At the outset of his Against Heresies Irenaeus of Lyons been able to eliminate? Isthere any hope ofsalvation from our
warns his readers 'not to expect from me any display of alienation-economic, political, spiritual and otherwise? Will
rhetoric, which I have never learned, or any excellence of our yearning for total liberation ever be fulfilled?
composition, which I have never practised, or any beauty o~ The early Christian writers, in their own way, considered
persuasiveness of style, to which I make n.o pretensions. these fundamental issues on the basis of the Judeo-Christian
Similarly, modest disclaimers can be found many of the tradition they inherited. Perhaps their categories of image of
10
Greek and Latin Fathers and alltoo often, unfortunately, they God, original sin, and grace may sound odd or hopelessly
have been taken at their word by an uninterested world. In old-fashioned to modern ears. And perhaps weshould invent a
fact, however, they were often highly educated product.s ofthe new language to express our peculiar experience ofour human
best rhetorical schools oftheir day in the Roman Empire, and condition, of our bondage and our liberation. Nevertheless,
what they have to say isoften as much a lesson in literary and patristic anthropology, despite the obsoleteness ofsome of its
cultural, as wellas in spiritual, edification. . . elements, contains profound and perennial insights into the
St. Augustine, in The City oj God (l9.7), has interesting human condition which we cannot afford to ignore.
reflections on the need for acommon language inan expand The present book seeks to recover the anthropological
109
world community; without acommon language a man is.more insights of those whom we traditionally call Fathers of the
at home with his dog than with a foreigner as fa.ras mt.er- Church and to present them in their own words. The highly
communication goes, even in the Roman Empire, which selected bibliography given at the end of the book is not
imposes on the nations it conquers the.yoke of both ~awand intended simply to provide suggestions for further readings,
language with aresultant abundance ofinterpreters. It I~hoped but also to acknowledge the works I have found most useful
that in the present world of continuing language barners the and from which I have learnt so much.
contributors to this series willprove opportune interpreters of
the perennial Christian message. 7
Thomas Halton
8 Preface
I would like to express my thanks to Professor Thomas
Introd uction
Halton for his advice and help which he has generously given
me in this book just as he had done in my first book in the
series. My gratitude also goes to Michael Glazier, who under
force majeure had to entrust me with the writing of this
volume. Thanks, too, to Jeri Guadagnoli, who cheerfully and
expertly typed the entire manuscript. .
Finally, the work is dedicated to Professor Dr. Achille
Ifitistrue, asRahner claims, that "dogmatic theology today
Triacca, my first Doktorvater, who has never ceased to
must be theological anthropology and that such an 'anthro-
encourage and support me.
pocentric' view isnecessary and useful, then speaking about
"1
Peter C. Phan God necessarily involves speaking about humanity and vice
versa. Furthermore, ifitistrue, asVatican IIteaches, that "it is
Catholic University of America
only inthe mystery ofthe Word made flesh that the mystery of
humanity truly becomes clear,''2then not only anthropology is
theology but also christology. And finally, since it is only in
Christ's Spirit that the whole human person is inwardly
renewed;' anthropology is not only theology and christology
but also pneumatology.
It isofparamount importance to perceive the "circuminces-
sion" among these theological treatises-theology, christology,
pneumatology and anthropology-in order to appreciate the
full significance of the early theological controversies and the
"Theology and Anthropology," Theological Investigations IX, translated by
Graham Harrison (New York: Seabury Press, 1972),28.
2Gaudium etSpes. no. 22.The Council goesontoaffirm: "For Adam, thefirstman,
was atype ofhim who wastocome, Christ the Lord. Christ the newAdam, inthevery
revelation ofthe mystery ofthe Father and ofhislove, fully reveals the human person
to himself and brings to light hismost high calling. Itisno wonder, then, that allthe
truths mentioned so far should find in him their source and their most perfect
embodiment." English translation, slightly emended, in Austin Flannery, general
editor, Vatican II .The Conciliar and Post Conciliar Document (Northport, New
York: Costello Publishing Co., 1977).
3Seeibid., 22: "Conformed to the image of the Son who isthe firstborn of many
brethren, theChristian receives the'first fruits oftheSpirit' (Rom. 8:23)bywhich heis
able to fulfill the newlaw oflove. Bythis Spirit, who isthe'pledge ofour inheritance'
(Eph. I:14),thewhole human being isinwardly renewed, right uptothe'redemption of
the body' (Rom. 8:23). 'If the Spirit ofhim who raised Jesus from the dead dwells in
you, he who raised Jesus from the dead will give life to your mortal bodies also
through his Spirit who dwells inyou'" (Rom. 8:II).
9
10 Introduction
Introduction II
first seven ecumenical councils. It is true that these contro- for the Bible only humanity is made in God's image and
versies and councils, from Nicaea I(325)to Nicaea II(787)deal likeness. Image means, ordinarily, an exact copy or repro-
with primarily trinitarian and christo logical issues;nevertheless duction, and its strong implication is attenuated by the
because they deal with them not as abstract truths but as addition of likeness, ordinarily meaning resemblance or
realities embodied in the economy of salvation, they neces- similarity. Furthermore, Hebrew thought knows no dichotomy
sarily, even though indirectly, exhibit their relevance for the between body and soul in the human person; it is the whole
eternal destiny of humanity. Thus, for example, if the early person that is in God's image and likeness. As God's image,
Church defended with extreme vigor the full humanity and humanity ishis representative on earth having dominion over
divinity ofJesus, it did so because it believed that whatever in other creatures. Finally, there isaconviction that the distinction
humanity that is not assumed by God is not saved and that, of the sexes isof divine origin and therefore good.
were Jesus not God, his life and death, however noble and The Yahwistic account of creation, more vivid, concrete,
praiseworthy they might be, would not be able to redeem and anthropomorphic than the priestly one, presents the story
humankind. In this sense it may be argued that theological of creation as a prelude to the story of the fall and the
anthropology-the theology of human existence, of sin and consequent story of humanity's gradual estrangement from
grace-was the underlying leitmotif of post-apostolic and God. The center of interest isthe creation of the first human
patristic writings. being (Adam in the collective sense) into whom God breathed
Of course the early Christian writers did not start their his"breath oflife. "The creation ofthe woman out ofthe man's
theological reflections on grace and the human condition from rib suggests that she is the complement of the man, a social
scratch nor did they do so in a kind of cultural vacuum. They being by nature, but not his mere appendage; rather she ishis
derived their raw material, as it were, from the Scripture and equal insofar as she has the same nature as his. The two
reformulated the biblical teaching inthe language and thought accounts of creation will be interpreted allegorically by some
forms of their time. It is necessary, therefore, to examine Fathers as implying a double creation; the first creation is
briefly biblical anthropology and Greco-Roman culture insofar that of the human souls who then "grew cold" in their love for
as these form the indispensable background for, and appre- God, and the second creation isthat ofthe material world into
ciation of, the development of patristic anthropology. which the fallen souls were consigned.
The story ofthe temptation and the fallofhumanity reveals,
on the one hand, the intimacy which the first human beings
I. Background and Context
enjoyed with God in the garden and, on the other, its
disruption bytheir pride intransgressing the divine command.
The earliest and the most basic biblical affirmation about
Their shame at being naked isa symbol of the change in their
human beings isfound in Gen 1:26-27: "Then God said: 'Let
condition: from God's friends they turned into his enemies,
us make humanity in our image and likeness to rule the fish in
from immortal they became subject to death.
the sea, the birds of heaven, the cattle, all wild animals on
The New Testament takes over the teachings ofthe Hebrew
earth, and all reptiles that crawl upon the earth.' So God
Bible regarding the creation of the world and of humanity as
created humanity in his own image; in the image of God he
wellasthe fall. However, ittransforms them intwo directions:
created it; male and female he created them." As we will see,
first, the center ofcreation isno longer the people ofIsrael but
this verse forms the cornerstone ofpatristic anthropology, and
Christ and hisdisciples (Acts 4:24-30; 1Pet 4:19)and secondly,
many Fathers draw asharp distinction between image (selem-
the role ofChrist increation ismade explicit (Col l:15-20,Heb
eikon-imagoi and likeness (demut-homoiosis-similuudot, 1:1-4;Jn 1:1-17).
Whatever may besaid about their interpretation, itisclear that
Most important, however, is the New Testament under-
12 Introduction Introduction 13
standing of the human condition and divine grace. Humans Christian Gnosticism, itisgenerally held today, had itsroots
are seen as subject to death, inclined to evil, and sinful (Rom in trends of thought already present in pagan religious circles
7:14-25). The cause of this situation of sin, death, and and inJewish wisdom theories. In Christianity, the movement
condemnation is traced back to the first sin of Adam (the appeared at first as a school or schools of thought within the
"peccatum originale originans," Rom 5:12-21). The New Church, but bythe end ofthe second century the Gnostics had
Testament declares, however, that this situation of sin, death, mostly become separate sects. Gnosticism took many different
and condemnation caused by the first Adam has been forms, commonly associated with the names of particular
destroyed by Christ, the second Adam, who brought grace, teachers, e. g. Valentinus, Basilides, and Marcion. The basic
life, and acquittal in abundance. The effects of Christ's issue for the Gnostics is the origin of evil. Gnosticism claims
redemption on humanity are described in many different that the material world isfundamentally evil, not the work of
ways: reconciliation and peace with God (Rom 5:1-5; Eph God, the supreme and unknowable divine Being, but of an
2:14-22; 2 Cor 5:18-21), friendship with God (In 15:13-14), arrogant evil power, called the Demiurge or creator god. The
indwelling of the Trinity (Eph 3:17; 1 Jn 2:6, 24, 27-28), Demiurge was derived from God by a series ofemanations or
adoptive sonship (Rom 8:15-23;Gal 4:5; Eph 1:3-14;In 1:13). 'aeons'; he it was who, through a fall among the higher aeons,
Sometimes the effects are described in terms of a created created and ruled the material world which is, therefore,
reality inthejustified, asan intrinsic transformation (Tit 3:4-2) imperfect and antagonistic to the spirit. Nevertheless, into the
as a rebirth (Tim 3:5; 1Pet 1:3-5;Jn 3:3-8), as participation in constitution ofsome human beings there had entered aseed or
the divine nature (2 Pet 1:3-7). spark of divine spiritual substance, and through the secret
One of the key words that the New Testament uses to knowledge revealed by God (gnosis) and the rites associated
characterize the saving work of Christ is charis, grace. In the with it, this spiritual element might be rescued from its evil
Hebrew Bible, grace (hen) means affection, good will,favor, or material environment and hence saved. Such people are called
friendliness, particularly on the part of someone in a high 'spiritual' tpneumatikoit whereas others were merely 'fleshly'
place. The meaning of hen is extended to the object of this (sarkikoii or 'material' ihylikoiy, though some Gnostics added
favor to imply charm, graciousness or beauty. The Hebrew a third intermediate class, the 'psychic' tpsychikoiy. The
Bible recognizes that divine grace, in the form either of good function of Christ was to come as the emissary ofthe supreme
will or of a gift, is both freely bestowed on God's part and God to reveal this 'gnosis.'
undeserved on humanity's part. In the New Testament, charis The principal anti-Gnostic writers, such as Irenaeus, Ter-
has a definitely soteriological connotation. It signified God's tullian, and Hippolytus rejected the Gnostic teachings by
supreme and gratuitous willto save, decreed from eternity and appealing to the plain meanings ofthe Scripture asinterpreted
carried out inhistory by Christ's act ofredemption, and isnow by the tradition of the Church, which had been publicly
achieving its effects in us and in the world. handed down by a chain of teachers reaching back to the
This is,inbrief outline, the biblical teaching on grace and the Apostles. They insisted on the identity ofthe Creator and the
human condition which the early Christian writers inherited, Supreme God, on the goodness ofthe material creation, on the
reflected upon, and communicated to their contemporaries. In need to be redeemed from an evil will rather than an evil
so doing, ofcourse, they had to usethe categories and thought environment. Other Fathers, such as Clement of Alexandria,
forms of their times. In order to understand their writings it would be more sympathetic toward Gnosticism and agreed
will beuseful to review, again insummary fashion, the various with the Gnostics that 'gnosis,' religious knowledge or illumi-
cultural movements operative in the patristic era.'
York: Harper and Row, 1960),pp. 3-28;J. Patout Burns, Theological Anthropology
'For excellent brief surveys, see J.. D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines ( ew (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985),pp. 1-10.
D
14 Introduction
Introduction 15
nation was the chief element in Christian perfection. Never-
elevated concept of God's transcendence, his triadic view of
theless: Clement maintained that true 'gnosis' was given only
reality and, above all, the basic religious orientation of his
by Christ, the Logos, the source of all human reason and the
systems, are among the most important elements that attracted
interpreter ofGod to humankind. This 'gnosis' isnow found in
the Fathers to hisideas. Since whatever exists isan emanation
the faith of the Church, apostolic in its foundation and
from the One, there isinall reality an ardent longing to return
possessing divine revelation.
to and be united with the One. The means to achieve this goal
The second philosophical movement that had far-reaching
is, according to Plotinus, contemplation, which is the most
influence on the Fathers isPlatonism, or more precisely Neo-
perfect activity the soul can perform. Fired by the heavenly
Platonism, which flourished from the middle of the third
Eros, the soul begins its ascent toward the One. In this ascent
century. Its most influential representative is Plotinus (205-
the ethical element (praxis) issubservient to the theoretical or
270)whose Enneads was wellknown to the Fathers. A monist,
intellectual element ttheoria). It is composed of three stages.
Plotinus conceives reality as one vast hierarchical structure
The first stage ispurification (catharsis) bywhich the soul frees
with grades descending from what isbeyond being (God or the
itself from the dominion ofthe body and the senses and rises to
One) to what falls below being (matter). The One, or the
the practice of the "political virtues," that is,the four cardinal
highest hypostasis, is the ineffable and unchanging source
virtues. In the second stage, the soul first rises above sense
from which all beings emanate and the goal to which they ever
perception, turning toward the nous and occupying itself with
strive to return. Immediately below the One is the second
science and philosophy. Next the soul moves beyond discursive
hypostasis, Mind or Thought (Nous), which comprises the
thought to union with nous. The third and last stage isthat of
world of forms, which itcontemplates in itseffort to return to
mystical union with God orthe One inan ecstasy characterized
the One. It isthe causal principle, and isidentified with Plato's
by the absence of all duality.
Demiurge. Below the Mind is the third hypostasis, the Soul
Along Plotinian linesseveral Greek Fathers (e.g. Gregory of
(Psyche), which isdivided into two: the higher soul, which is
Nyssa with his notion of epectasis) and Augustine (e.g. in The
akin to the Mind and transcends the material order, and the
Confessions 1, 1:"You have made us for yourself, and our
lower soul or Nature (physis), which is the soul of the world.
heart isrestless until it rests in you'') develop an anthropology
From this World-Soul individual human souls proceed, and,
in which human existence isconceived asadynamic desire for
like the World-Soul, they are divided into two elements, a
union with God in knowledge and love and as a participation
higher element which belongs to the sphere ofthe nous, and a
in God's perfections. Of course, there is a fundamental
lower element which isdirectly connected with the body. The
difference between Plotinus' "natural mysticism" and the
soul pre-existed before its union with the body, which is
Fathers' notion of participation in God's life, insofar as in the
represented asafall, and survives the death ofthe body. Below
former union with the One isachieved bythe unaided effort of
the sphere ofsoul isthat ofthe material world. Matter, though
the soul, whereas for the latter, it is a gratuitous gift of God.
ultimately proceeding from the One, isthe lowest stage of the
Nevertheless, itistrue that Plotinus exercised agreat influence
universe and isthe antithesis ofthe One asdarkness isopposed
on the early Christian writers, and through them Dionysius the
to light. Devoid ofquality, as the privation of being and light,
Areopagite and later theologians and mystics.
matter isthe principle of evil.
In contrast to Platonic idealism, Stoicism is a form of
Plotinian neo-Platonism exercised a strong influence upon
materialistic pantheism or monism. It rejects the Platonic
the Alexandrian Fathers, Origen in particular, and the
distinction between the transcendent world of intelligible
Cappadocian Fathers, especially Gregory ofNyssa, and, inthe
forms not perceptible by the senses and the ordinary world of
West, Ambrose and Augustine. The reasons for this are many
sensible experience and teaches that the universe as a whole is
and vary from writers to writers. But, no doubt Plotinus'
material. God or Logos is a finer matter, a fiery vapor,
b
Introduction 17
16 Introduction
inherent in Stoicism, and their emphasis on the need for
immanent in the material universe. This God, Logos, Provi-
asceticism and self-conquest at times ran counter to the
dence, Nature, or the soul of the universe is the "active
Christian doctrines of the fall, the bondage of the human will
principle" and permeates and organizes the unformed matter,
to sin, and the absolute necessity of grace. The stories of
which isthe "passive principle." Each particular thing isas it
Pelagius and his disciples and of the so-called Semi-Pelagian
were amicrocosmos, composed ofthe material active principle
monks of Southern Gaul are cases in point.
(the Logos) and the passive principle (unformed matter).
Indeed, the Stoics speak of the 'seminal logoi' (logoi
spermatikoit, that is, seeds through the activity of which II. Patristic Anthropology: Basic Themes
individual things come into existence. The human soul is a
portion ofthe divine Logos; it iscomposed of the five senses, It was in the context of Gnosticism, Neo-Platonism and
the power of self-expression, the reproductive capacity, and Stoicism (to mention only the most important and obvious
the ruling element, namely reason. The Stoics made an philosophical currents) that the early Christian writers devel-
important distinction between the 'immanent logos' (logos oped their anthropologies on the basis of the Jewish heritage
endiathetos), which isreason considered merely as present in and the Christian gospel. Their approaches, methods and
humans, and the 'expressed logos' (logos prophorikos), which themes are no doubt extremely varied and permit no easy
is reason made known by means of the faculty of speech. systematization. Nevertheless, some basic and overarching
Though some Fathers used certain Stoic expressions to themes must be found to guide us in our reading of their
expound the Christian teachings, e.g. Justin's use of the logoi voluminous writings and to function asacoherent criterion for
spermatikoi, Theophilus of Antioch's use of the logos en- our selection of texts. There is, of course, no one single
diathetos and logos prophorikos inhisLogos christology, and approach to patristic anthropology that can claim exclusive
the frequent description of reason as the ruling faculty (to validity. Patristic theology of human existence isso rich and
hegemonikon), the materialist monism of Stoic cosmology diverse that inprinciple anyone method can disclose aspects of
was repugnant to them. On the other hand, many Fathers (e.g. itthat another may have neglected. Ihave chosen the theme of
Ambrose and Augustine) found their ethical system very "image of God" as the architectonic principle with which to
appealing. In contrast to Epicureanism which makes pleasure organize patristic anthropology; my hope isthat such achoice
the end of life, Stoicism believes that the end of life or is not entirely arbitrary.
happiness (eudaimoniai consists in virtue, that is, the life On the basis ofpatristic writings, itmay besaid that human
according to nature, the agreement of human action with the beings derive their unique dignity from the fact that they have
law ofnature, or ofthe human willwith the divine will. Hence been created in the image and likeness of God. Of course the
the famous Stoic maxim, "Live according to nature." Life expression "in the image and likeness of God" isanything but
according to nature is life conducted in accordance with the obvious, and different Fathers givedifferent interpretations to
principle that is active in nature, the Logos, the principle it that can hardly be harmonized, as the selected texts will
shared in by the human soul. The ethical end, therefore, show. Nevertheless, the fact that humans are so created
consists in submission to the divinely appointed order. remains fundamental. As Epiphanius has said, somewhat
Characteristic of Stoic ethics is its emphasis on the four impatiently: "Where the image isand in what part it consists,
cardinal virtues and on the achievement of apatheia, the state God alone knows. But we should admit the image in human
of moral conquest of the passions and affections. beings, lestweappear to reject God's gifts and refuse to believe
This Stoic ethics was transformed by the Fathers in light of in him.">Indeed, the Fathers discussed and disagreed whether
the Christian doctrine of sin and grace; unfortunately not all
early Christian writers were fully aware ofthe basic naturalism 5Haereses III, I, PG 42, 341-345.
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