GPS and GNSS Technology in Geosciences

440 Pages·2021·45.766 MB·English

by  George P. Petropoulos, Prashant K. Srivastava

GPS AND GNSS TECHNOLOGY
IN GEOSCIENCES
Edited by
G P. P
EORGE ETROPOULOS
AssistantProfessor of Geoinformatics, DepartmentofGeography, Harokopio University ofAthens,Greece
P K. S
RASHANT RIVASTAVA
AssistantProfessor Instituteof EnvironmentandSustainable DevelopmentBanarasHinduUniversity, India
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Contributors
Christos Chalkias Department of Geography, NikolaosKatsenios DepartmentofSoilScience,
Harokopio University of Athens, Athens, Institute of Soil and Water Resources, Hellenic
Greece Agricultural Organization e Demeter, Lycov-
Prem Chandra Pandey Center for Environ- risi,Attiki,Greece
mental Sciences & Engineering, Shiv Nadar Eleni Kokinou Department of Agriculture,
University,UttarPradesh,India Hellenic Mediterranean University, Heraklion,
Alison de Oliveira Moraes Instituto de Aero- Greece; Institute of Computer Science, Foun-
náuticaeEspaçoeIAE,SãoJosédosCampos, dation for Research and Technology-Hellas,
SP,Brazil Heraklion,Greece
Aspasia Efthimiadou Department of Soil Sci- Amit Kumar Department of Geoinformatics,
Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi,
ence, Institute of Soil and Water Resources,
HellenicAgriculturalOrganizationeDemeter, Jharkhand,India
Lycovrisi,Attiki,Greece Pavan Kumar College of Forestry and Horti-
Antigoni Faka School of Environment, Geogra- culture,RaniLakshmiBaiCentralAgricultural
University,Jhansi,India
phy and Applied Economics, Department of
Geography, Harokopio University of Athens, Sanjay Kumar Atmospheric Research Labora-
Athens, Greece tory Department of Physics, Banaras Hindu
Victor Hugo Fernandes Breder Instituto Tec- University,Varanasi,Uttar Pradesh,India
nológico de Aeronáutica e ITA, São José dos Shubham Kumar Department of Geo-
Campos,SP,Brazil informatics, Central University of Jharkhand,
V.G. Ferreira School of Earth Sciences and En- Ranchi,Jharkhand,India
gineering, Hohai University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, Preet Lal Department of Geoinformatics, Cen-
China tral University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jhark-
João Francisco Galera Monico Sao Paulo State hand,India
UniversityeUNESP,Presidente Prudente, SP, Lawrence Lau, PhD Department of Land Sur-
Brazil veying and Geo-Informatics, The Hong Kong
Grigoris Grigorakakis Department of Geogra- Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR,
phy, Harokopio University of Athens, Athens, China; Department of Civil Engineering, The
University of Nottingham Ningbo China,
Greece
Ningbo,Zhejiang,China
Moisés José dos Santos Freitas Instituto Tec-
nológico de Aeronáutica e ITA, São José dos qukasz Lrmieszewski Jakub Paradyz_ Univer-
Campos,SP,Brazil sity, Faculty of Technology, Gorzów Wielko-
polski,Poland
Kleomenis Kalogeropoulos Department of Ge-
Kamil Maciuk AGH University of Science and
ography, Harokopio University of Athens,
Technology,Krakow,Poland
Athens, Greece
ix
x
CONTRIBUTORS
R.K. Mall DST - Mahamana Centre of Excel- S.S. Rao Department of Physics, Institute of
lence in Climate Change Research (MCECCR), Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi,
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Uttar Pradesh,India
Pradesh,India Eurico Rodrigues de Paula National Institute
Jorge Martínez-Guanter Aerospace Engineer- for Space Research e INPE, São José dos
ing and Fluids Mechanics Department, Uni- Campos,SP,Brazil
versityofSevilla,Sevilla,Spain Purabi Saikia Department of Environmental
Yenca O. Migoya-Orué The Abdus Salam In- Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand,
ternational Centre for Theoretical Physics Ranchi, Jharkhand,India
(ICTP),Trieste,Italy LucasAlvesSalles InstitutoTecnológicodeAer-
H.D. Montecino Departamento de Ciencias onáuticaeITA,SãoJosédosCampos,SP,Brazil
Geodésicas y Geomática, Universidad de Con- Martin Schaefer University of Portsmouth,
cepción,Los Angeles,Biobío,Chile School of the Environment, Geography and
AdamNarbudowicz TrinityCollegeDublin,the Geosciences, Buckingham Building, Lion Ter-
University of Dublin, CONNECT Centre, race, Portsmouth,UK
Dublin,Ireland;WroclawUniversityofScience Hao Sha Gyrfalcon Technology Inc., Milpitas,
and Technology, Telecommunications and CA,UnitedStates
Teleinformatics Department, Wroclaw,Poland
Jyoti Kumar Sharma Center for Environmental
C.E.Ndehedehe AustralianRiversInstituteand Sciences&Engineering,ShivNadarUniversity,
Griffith School of Environment & Science, Uttar Pradesh,India
GriffithUniversity,Nathan,QLD,Australia
A.K. Singh Atmospheric Research Laboratory
EvgenyOchin JakubParadyz_University,Faculty Department of Physics, Institute of Science,
ofTechnology,GorzówWielkopolcki,Poland Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar
Manish Kumar Pandey Remote Sensing Labo- Pradesh,India
ratory, Institute of Environment and Sustain- R.P. Singh Atmospheric Research Laboratory
able Development, Banaras Hindu University, Department of Physics, Banaras Hindu Uni-
Varanasi,UttarPradesh,India versity, Varanasi,Uttar Pradesh,India
Zoi Papadopoulou Department of Natural Re- Arpine Soghoyan Gyrfalcon Technology Inc.,
sources and Agricultural Engineering, Agri- Milpitas, CA,UnitedStates
culturalUniversity ofAthens,Athens, Greece
Panagiotis Sparangis Department of Soil Sci-
Alastair Pearson University of Portsmouth, ence, Institute of Soil and Water Resources,
School of the Environment, Geography and HellenicAgriculturalOrganizationeDemeter,
Geosciences, Buckingham Building, Lion Ter-
Lycovrisi, Attiki,Greece
race,Portsmouth,UK
Prashant K. Srivastava Remote Sensing Labo-
ManuelPerez-Ruiz AerospaceEngineeringand
ratory, Institute of Environment and Sustain-
Fluids Mechanics Department, University of able Development, Banaras Hindu University,
Sevilla,Sevilla,Spain
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India; DST - Maha-
George P. Petropoulos Department of Geogra- mana Centre of Excellence in Climate Change
phy, Harokopio University of Athens, Athens, Research (MCECCR), Banaras Hindu Univer-
Greece; School of Mineral Resources Engineer- sity, Varanasi,Uttar Pradesh,India
ing, Technical University of Crete, Kounou- Nikolaos Stathopoulos Institute for Space
pidianaCampus,Greece
Applications and Remote Sensing, National
Sandro M. Radicella The Abdus Salam Inter- ObservatoryofAthens,BEYONDCentreofEO
national Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP), Research & Satellite Remote Sensing, Athens,
Trieste,Italy Greece
xi
CONTRIBUTORS
Baohua Sun Gyrfalcon Technology Inc., Milpi- Shrini K. Upadhyaya Biological and Agricul-
tas,CA,UnitedStates tural Engineering Department, University of
Prasoon Tiwari DST - Mahamana Centre of California,Davis,CA,UnitedStates
Excellence in Climate Change Research Bruno César Vani Federal Institute of Educa-
(MCECCR), Banaras Hindu University, Vara- tion, Science and Technology of Sao Paulo e
nasi,Uttar Pradesh,India IFSP,PresidenteEpitácio, SP,Brazil
Dimitris Triantakonstantis Department of Soil Michalis Vidalis-Kelagiannis Department of
Science, Institute of Soil and Water Resources, Geography, Harokopio University of Athens,
HellenicAgriculturalOrganizationeDemeter, Athens,Greece
Lycovrisi,Attiki,Greece T.Xu NanjingUniversityofInformationScience
AmitKumarTripathi CenterforEnvironmental andTechnology,Nanjing,Jiangsu,China
Sciences&Engineering,ShivNadarUniversity, Lin Yang Gyrfalcon Technology Inc., Milpitas,
UttarPradesh,India CA,UnitedStates
Andreas Tsatsaris Department of Surveying P. Yuan Geodetic Institute, Karlsruhe Institute
and Geoinformatics Engineering, University of
ofTechnology,Karlsruhe,Baden-Württemberg,
WestAttica, Athens,Greece
Germany
Konstantinos Tserpes Harokopio University,
School of Digital Technology, Department of
InformaticsandTelematics,Athens, Greece
Foreword
Although the Global Positioning System systems that would continue to enhance
(GPS) technology, developed by the US Air locationandtimeaccuracyandalsodiversify
Force to track their nuclear submarines, was the use of spatiotemporal data toward
ingeniouslyusedbygeoscientistsinthe1990s sustainable development offers a highly
to detect nano-strain deformation of the promising approach toward building a
earth’s surface, its potential applications in hazard resilient society.
data-guided geo-science services to society This volume edited by scientists of
began to sprout only after the US Govern- proven credentials who have personally
ment,in2000,endedtheselectiveavailabilityof contributed to advancing the wavefront of
its error-free signals. This landmark decision, GNSS applications from its initial tracking
by dramatically reducing real-time location and time stamping uses to the Internet of
errors by an order of magnitude, fueled the Things has rightly identified the critical el-
designanddevelopmentofa widevariety of ements of scientific knowledge and the
progressively miniaturized receiver systems computational and technological challenges
and algorithms for guiding management needed to translate these into knowledge
strategies, environmental monitoring, products, to fashion its contents. These,
resource conservation, as well as individuals contained in 27 chapters, systematically
in planning their lives and works which, in address the important links in the long
turn, drove the evolution of new supportive chainofsystemstructureandprocessesthat
public infrastructure. Concomitantly, the reduce the end product of a highly sophis-
depoliticization of GPS signals catalyzed ticated technological system into one of
evolution of the transformative Global equally high social value. This book is thus
Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) which admirablydesignedtoinform,educate,and
allows a civilian user to exploit the technical given the requisite motivation, empower
interoperability of the various national and both curious and dedicated individuals to
regional satellite networks, notably the professionally engage in aspects of the
modernized GPS, the European Galileo, and system that fire their interest.
the restructured Russian Glonass, to meet
user demands for ever more precise estima-
tions of earth coordinates and time. A
commitment by GNSS to promote the devel- Vinod Gaur
opment of and support to complementary Bangalore, February 10, 2021
xiii
C H A P T E R
1
Introduction to GPS/GNSS
technology
1 1 1 2
Amit Kumar , Shubham Kumar , Preet Lal , Purabi Saikia ,
3,4 5,6
Prashant K. Srivastava , George P. Petropoulos
1Department of Geoinformatics, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India;
2Department of Environmental Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand,
India; 3Remote Sensing Laboratory, Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development,
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India; 4DST - Mahamana Centre of
Excellence in Climate Change Research (MCECCR), Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi,
Uttar Pradesh, India; 5Department of Geography, Harokopio University of Athens,
Athens, Greece; 6School of Mineral Resources Engineering, Technical University of Crete,
Kounoupidiana Campus, Greece
1. Background
TheGlobalNavigationSatelliteSystem(GNSS)hasbecomeacrucialplayerintermsofthe
country’s capability to monitor real-time activities across the world. The rapid growth in
GNSS was first observed through the development of commercial applications through
building navigation satellites and associated equipment. The next-level progression was
made in the positioning techniques using GNSS such as Global Positioning System (GPS),
the infrastructure of the mobile network, and their integration for applications such as auto-
matic vehicle location, tracking systems, navigation have drawn the attention of various
countries such as the United States, India, and China. Satellite navigation system (SNS) is
the system of offering real-time location service using navigation satellites to the users in
air, sea, ground, or space [59]. It is most popular among other navigation technologies as
itoffersareal-timelocationintermsofposition,velocity,andtime(PVT)withveryhighpre-
cision. GNSS is a combined collection of satellite systems that directs to all the prevailing
worldwideSNSsaswellasregionalandadvancednavigationalsystems. TheseSNSsconsti-
tute several augmented systems to enhance system performance to achieve specific require-
ments. These are Japan’s Multi-functional Satellite Augmentation System, United States of
GPSandGNSSTechnologyinGeosciences 3
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818617-6.00001-9 ©2021ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
4
1. IntroductiontoGPS/GNSStechnology
America’sWideArea AugmentationSystem,India’sGPS-aided GEOaugmentednavigation
(GAGAN), and Europe’s European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS).
Navigationisthescienceofprovidingdirectionsfromoneplacetoanother,basedonland-
marksorreferencepoints,andthehumansenseofdirection[5,26,58].UsingtheSunandthe
stars as reference for navigation on land as well as on ocean surfaces, (Hofmann-Wellenhof
et al., 2003; [53]) have various limitations such as nonvisibility during cloudy conditions,
the relative change in position of these references during various seasons, and position on
theEarth[3].Withtheadventofgeographicalcoordinates(latitudesandlongitudes)andalti-
tude, the challenge with respect to two-dimensional and three-dimensional reference for
terrestrial navigation has been resolved [4,14]. In the recent past, the radio signals have
helpedinthenavigationtoensuresafetyduringmaritimeandinlandjourneys[47].Celestial
navigation is based on the triangulation method, in which celestial bodies are used as refer-
ence points, and the GPS is based on the concept of trilateration, which uses GPS satellites’
locationsasreference[47].GPScanmeasurethetime,altitude,longitude,andlatitudebased
on the available satellite signals above the horizon [50] and contributes in determining the
precisepositioning of anobject on Earth thatrevolutionizedthe navigationand tracking ap-
plications[13,63].Itisoneofthemostpopularsatellite-basednavigationradiosystemsdueto
the global availability of signal as well as performance. The fundamental operations of the
GPS are one-way ranging that depends on satellite atomic clock predictability. GPS works
in an integrated manner with various supporting parameters such as satellite geometry,
communication link, the antenna of satellite and receiver, the position of the antenna, and
decoding parameters [43]. It is independent of any weather conditions, and day or night
limitations,andprovidesautonomousspatialpositioningwithglobalcoverage.Real-timeki-
nematic (RTK) GPS has high producibility, is comparatively more flexible, and is cost- and
time-effective, which reduces the cost by w50% and time by w75% compared to traditional
techniques. It allows measuring positions of an objectin real time with an accuracy of a few
centimeters [54].
ThefirstGPSreceiverswereverysimple,providingverybasicinformationoflatitudeand
longitude with monochrome screens and higher prices. Over the years, the next-generation
SNS receivers brought more user-friendly map-based location devices with color screens
with in-built multiple advanced features, at comparatively lower prices. GPS also operates
independently, which makes it accessible by anyone and provides the ability to work freely
withotherGPSreceivers.Nowadays,itisbeingusedbycivil,military,andcommercialusers
vastlyaroundtheworldwithcrucialinformationincludingspeed,elevation,andgeolocation
with the added base map. The system has revolutionized today’s technology by becoming
more interactive, effective, and useful in multiple industries. This chapter will explore the
basic principles of GPS, its various hardware that make it work in-depth, and the operation
of the system, including the theoretical calculations for positioning, speed, bearing, and dis-
tance to destination.
The history of navigation goes back as early as the invention of the magnetic compass as
mentionedbyCeruzzi[7].Thenavigationinthelaterperiodwascarriedbyachronometeras
givenbyCeruzzi[8],whichresolvedtheproblemoflongitude.ThiswasreplacedbyQuartz
oscillatorsinthe1920s.Thenextconcurrentadvancementwasradioorthewireless.Thenext
advancement was Omega and Loran, which were the radio-based inertial navigation sys-
tems.Thiswasfurthertakenoverbysatellite-basednavigationsystemsinthe1960s.Theevo-
lution of GNSS as given in NASA (2020) is listed in Table 1.1.
I.GeneralintroductiontoGPS/GNSStechnology
5
2. MajorsegmentsofGPS
TABLE1.1 Theevolutionof GNSS.
1960 USAirForceandNavycommenceresearch
1973 USDepartmentofDefenseunveilsGPSproject
1978 FirstUSGPSsatellitelaunched
1982 FirstRussianGLONASSsatellitelaunched
1983 KAL007flightdisaster
1994 WorldwidecoverageachievedbyGPS
2000 FullcivilianaccuracypermittedintheUnitedStates
2000 FirstChineseBeiDousatellitelaunched
2005 FirstEuropeanUnionGalileosatellitelaunched
2011 WorldwidecoverageachievedbytheRussianGLONASSsystem
2018 GPSIIIsatellitelaunched
2020 WorldwidecoverageisprojectedforChina’sBeiDouconstellationandtheEuropeanUnion’sGalileo
constellation
The commercial market of GPS emerged during 1983e95 [8], and the market converged
during 1995e2015 [8]. From 1995 to 2005, GPS found its use in several areas ranging from
research, surveying, military, and in hiking and hunting. In the second decade, from 2005
to15,itdrewpublicattention,andseveralnewapplicationswerecreated,whichwerenever
thought of earlier, for example, in cell phones, in drones, in a smartphone, tracking and pri-
vacy, etc., to name a few. The future market growth of GNSS could be estimated only after
the full deployment of the Galileo and BeiDou satellite constellations is over. The European
GNSSAgencyprojectsthecurrentvalueofsixbillionGNSSdeployeddevicestogrowtoover
nine billion by 2023 (Jacobson, 2017). According to Research and Markets NASA (2020), the
GNSSmarketisestimatedtogrowatacompoundannualgrowthrateofaround9.0%during
2018e22.AsperGNSSMarketOutlook2022NASA(2020),marketdynamicswouldbeledby
location-based services, transportation, surveying activities, and agriculture.
2. Major segments of GPS
GPSprimarilyconsistsofthreedifferentsegmentsviz.(a)satelliteconstellation,(b)ground
control stations, and (c) receivers [10]. The space segment consists of constellations of satel-
lites that transmit pseudorandom noise (PRN)ecoded signals, which are used for the true
line-of-sight (LoS) range (speed*time) along with various error sources including satellite
clockerror,atmosphericdelays,receiverclockerror,trackingerrors,andreceiverchannelde-
lays[40].Thecodedsignalscomprisetheinformationaboutthepositionofthesatellite,which
I.GeneralintroductiontoGPS/GNSStechnology
6
1. IntroductiontoGPS/GNSStechnology
canbeusedbyanunlimitednumberofusersatatime[26].TheGPSsatelliteconstellationsin
the space segment are being monitored and controlled by the GPS control segment (CS) by
resolving satellite anomalies and collecting pseudorange and carrier-phase measurements
at the control stations to ascertain and refurbish satellite clock rectification, almanac, and
ephemerisatleastonceperday[49].Additionally,theCSmonitorsthestateofthesatellite’s
health,controls its orbital position, and regulatesthe satellite bus and payloads[45]. The CS
has three different physical components such as the master control station (MCS), monitor
stations, and ground antennas. The receiver/user segment includes all military and civilian
users using the GPS signal for various purposes [13]. Each GPS receiver processes the trans-
mitted signals received from the satellites to determine the PVT of the receiver anywhere in
the world.
3. Functioning of GPS
GPS works on the ranging and trilateration by combining various groups of satellites
[34], functional in space as reference points. These satellites transmit a navigation message
consistingofinformationrelatedtoalmanac,i.e.,theorbitalinformationabouttheentiresat-
elliteconstellation,generalsystemstatusmessages,aswellasephemeris,andthedetailofthe
individualsatellite’spositiontoregulatetheorbitalpositionofsatellites.Aminimumoffour
commonsatellites arerequiredin agrouptodeterminetheprecisereceiver’sposition atany
time[21].Onlythreedistancestothreesimultaneouslytrackedsatellitesareneededtoobtain
the latitude, longitude, and altitude information. However, the fourth satellite accounts for
the receiver clock offset and contributes in time rectification [27]. The GPS positioning is
further improved at subcentimeter to a few meters with the deployment of two receivers
simultaneously tracking the same GPS satellites [31]. GPS employs three basic binary codes
viz,(PRNcodeincludingprecision(P)code,CoarseAcquisition(C/A)code,andthenaviga-
tioncode.ThePRNcodeisasequenceofveryprecisetimemarksthatallowthereceiversto
estimate the transmission delay between the satellite and the control station [33,56].
The GPS satellites broadcast two carrier waves viz. L1 (390MHz) and L2 (1500MHz),
which are modulated by the coded information signal that is transmitted by the satellites
to communicate with the receivers. They are derived from the frequency of 10.23MHz
through a very precise atomic clock. The high-frequency signals transmitted from the satel-
litestravelinastraightlineandhaveverylowpower(50W).Itisveryessentialthatthean-
tenna of the GPS receiver shouldhave a direct view of the satellite. L1 and L2 carrier waves
arebroadcasted at1575.42MHz and1227.60MHz, respectively. L1carrierwaves aremodu-
lated with the C/A code at 1.023MHz and the P-code at 10.23MHz, while the L2 carrier
wave is modulated with only one code, i.e., P-code at 10.23MHz. These coded signals are
used to calculate the transmission time of radio signals from the satellite to the receivers
on the Earth, i.e., the time of arrival, which is multiplied by the velocity of the signal to es-
timate the satellite range, which is the distance from the satellite to the receiver. The GPS
signal contains a navigation message of a low frequency (50Hz), which is modulated on
the L1 and L2 carriers [16].
I.GeneralintroductiontoGPS/GNSStechnology