Table Of Content

GOOD TO GREAT IN ELITE ATHLETES: TOWARDS AN UNDERSTANDING OF WHY SOME ATHLETES MAKE THE LEAP AND OTHERS DO NOT By Nicole Wendy Forrester A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Kinesiology – Doctor of Philosophy 2013 ABSTRACT GOOD TO GREAT IN ELITE ATHLETES: TOWARDS AN UNDERSTANDING OF WHY SOME ATHLETES MAKE THE LEAP AND OTHERS DO NOT By Nicole Wendy Forrester At the Olympic Games or World Championship level, most elite athletes have a shared goal of becoming the best in their discipline. Athletes who are able to consistently rise to the occasion, set world records, or medal at a major games may be viewed as super-elite (great) athletes. Inspired by the work of Jim Collins (2001) who explored good to great in companies, this study sought to understand how an athlete who has been good over an extended period of time makes the transition to become great. The purpose of this study was to explore: (a) What, if any, are the mental factors and psychosocial-emotional changes associated with athletes who are able to make the shift from good to great? and (b) Are there mental factors and psychosocial- emotional changes that distinguish good-to-great athletes from comparison athletes? Twelve Olympic track and field athletes (6 = good-to-great athletes, and 6 = direct-comparison athletes) representing five different countries were interviewed. The “direct comparison” athletes are athletes who had competed in at least two Olympic Games, but failed to medal at a major championship and were unable to achieve a performance score of 1,200 points on the IAAF Scoring Table of Athletics. The “good-to-great” athletes had competed in at least two Olympic Games, demonstrated a pattern of good performances over a minimum of 5 years, punctuated by a transition point after which they medaled on three separate occasions at a World Championship or Olympic Games and had a performance score greater than 1,200 points on the IAAF Scoring Table of Athletics, over a 5 year period. The results revealed five dimensions (performance enhancement skills and characteristics, support and resources, motivational issues and orientation, skill mastery and quality of training, and accumulated training time) as influencing the initial shift from good to great in good-to-great athletes, of which three of these dimensions (accumulated training time, performance enhancement skills and characteristics, and motivation issues and orientation) were described as also contributing to sustaining this transition. Both groups of athletes reported implementing similar strategies; however, the direct comparison athletes were less successful in their use of strategies. Additionally, the results provide support for the mental toughness framework in good-to-great athletes. DEDICATION I dedicate my dissertation to anyone who has ever strived to achieve their own personal excellence, or to go from good to great. How great you truly are, because you dared to be courageous. You dared to be your best! Life is truly what we make it, and I believe we are each destined for great things if we so desire it and have the courage to go after it. Measure your success not by comparing your achievements to others, but by how close you approach your own potential. You may discover you’ll surpass exceptional along the way. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Isaac Newton once said, “If I have seen further than others, it is by standing upon the shoulders of giants.” I believe this quote best reflects my sentiments concerning my dissertation and doctoral journey. Without the team of support I’ve been so fortunate to have this would not have been possible. Words can’t express enough the gratitude I have for Dr. Deborah Feltz, who has been my advisor, dissertation chair, mentor, and friend. She has been patient in my doctoral pursuit as I dually juggled being a professional athlete. She provided guidance, support, and fostered an earnest desire to think critically and scholarly. I can say thanks in part to Dr. Feltz, pursuing a doctoral degree at Michigan State University was one of the best decisions I have ever made. I would like to also thank Dr. Dan Gould and Dr. Marty Ewing, who were members of both my comprehensive exam and dissertation committee. Their time, commitment, and interest did not go unnoticed. I’m grateful to Dr. Gould who first encouraged me to read the works of Jim Collins, resulting in the inspiration of this dissertation. I have an immense amount of respect and appreciation for Dr. Gould who has enhanced my knowledge of elite athletes, continuously challenged me to think critically, and has made me want to a better version of myself academically. Dr. Ewing provided incredible support, kindness and insightful evaluation. Her genuine interest and involvement in my doctoral studies has allowed me to grow scholarly, but most importantly as a person. I owe sincere and earnest thankfulness to Dr. Joseph Cesario who joined my doctoral committee, after the untimely passing of Dr. Jerry Brophy. Dr. Cesario provided an objective evaluation, concerning the participation, methodology, and results of my dissertation. v Additionally, I would like to thank Dr. Brophy who offered his time, support, and encouragement for both my comprehensive exam and dissertation in the beginning. He is missed. Finally, I would be remised if I didn’t thank my family. My parents have taught me the importance of setting my own standard of excellence, and my sister and her family, as well as my brother have provided continuous support and encouragement. I am not sure many graduate students are given the opportunity to develop their own individuality and self-sufficiency to find answers to a question they’ve always wondered about. With the support and guidance I received from my team of giants, I was able to study what it was that first interested me to pursue a doctoral degree at Michigan State in the Department of Kinesiology. A true testament to my incredible team of giants I’ve been so fortunate to have entered my life and work with me. From the bottom of my heart, thank you! Nicole Wendy Forrester vi TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. ix LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ x CHAPTER ONE: Introduction .......................................................................................... 1 Background ................................................................................................. 3 Nature of the Problem ................................................................................. 5 Conceptual Underpinnings for the Study .................................................... 6 Purpose of Study ....................................................................................... 11 Research Question .................................................................................... 12 Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations ........................................... 13 Definitions................................................................................................. 13 CHAPTER TWO: Literature Review .............................................................................. 15 Good to Great in Business .................................................................................... 16 Good to Great in Athletics: A Model of Psychological Preparation for Peak Performance .......................................................................................................... 19 The Long Term Development of an Elite Athlete ................................................ 21 Motivation Theories, Constructs, and Cognitive Strategies ................................. 26 Self-efficacy .............................................................................................. 26 Achievement Motivation .......................................................................... 30 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation ............................................................ 30 Casual Attribution ..................................................................................... 32 Goal Perspective Theory ........................................................................... 35 Goals ......................................................................................................... 41 Goal Setting Strategies .............................................................................. 44 Psychological Characteristics of Elite Athletes .......................................................... 50 Research Gaps............................................................................................................. 61 CHAPTER THREE: Methods ......................................................................................... 65 Sample....................................................................................................... 65 Instruments ................................................................................................ 70 Procedure ................................................................................................. 72 Interviewer ................................................................................................ 75 Data Analysis ............................................................................................ 76 Recognition of Potential Biases. ............................................................... 77 vii CHAPTER FOUR: Results ............................................................................................ 80 Factors Associated with Good to Great Transition ............................................. 80 Factors Associated with the Shift from Good to Great ............................. 81 Factors Associated with Sustaining the Shift from Good to Great ........... 96 Factors Distinguishing Good-to-Great Athletes from Direct Comparison Athletes ............................................................................... 107 Athletic Development and Training Differences ................................................ 107 Strategies Implemented to Improve Performances ................................. 111 Factors That Could Have Improved Performances in Direct Comparison Athletes ............................................................................... 129 CHAPTER FIVE: Discussion ...................................................................................... 140 Introduction ............................................................................................. 140 Mental Factors and Psychosocial-Emotional Changes Associated with the Good to Great Transition ................................................................... 142 Mental Factors and Psychosocial-Emotional Changes Distinguishing Good-to-Great Athletes from Comparison Athletes ............................... 154 Exploring Good to Great through the Mental Toughness Framework .... 163 Strengths and Weaknesses of the Study .................................................. 166 Future Research Directions ..................................................................... 170 Practical Implications.............................................................................. 174 Conclusion .............................................................................................. 176 APPENDICES ................................................................................................................ 177 APPENDIX A: Demographics and Historical Performances ................ 178 APPENDIX B: Good to Great in Athletics, Research Study Consent Form………………………………………………………………….... 181 APPENDIX C: Good-to-Great Athlete Interview Guide ....................... 183 APPENDIX D: Direct Comparison Athlete Interview Guide ............... 188 APPENDIX E: Themes and Quotes of All Participants ........................ 191 APPENDIX F: Transcription Convention ............................................. 245 APPENDIX G: Copyright Permission ................................................... 247 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 249 viii LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Psychological Factors Associated with Olympic Success .................................. 3 Table 2: Good-to-Great Athletes' Performances IAAF Scores ........................................ 67 Table 3: Direct Comparison Athletes' Performances IAAF Scores ................................ 68 Table 4: Demographics of Good-to-Great and Direct Comparison Athletes ................. 69 Table 5: Factors Influencing Shift from Good to Great .................................................. 82 Table 6: Factors Sustaining Shift from Good to Great ................................................. 100 Table 7: Athletic Development and Training Differences Between Good-to-Great and Direct Comparison Athletes ...................................................................... 110 Table 8: Strategies Implemented to Create a Shift From Good to Great ....................... 113 Table 9: Factors That Could Have Improved Performances in Direct Comparison Athletes ............................................................................................................ 132 Table 10: Transcription Conventions............................................................................. 246 ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Good to Great Athletes’ Performance Trend. .................................................. 68 Figure 2: Direct Comparison Athletes’ Performance Trend ............................................ 69 Figure 3: Average Performance Trend of Good to Great and Direct Comparison Athletes ............................................................................................................. 70 Figure 4: Themes for factors influencing shift from good to great. ................................. 82 Figure 5: Themes for factors sustaining shift from good to great.................................... 99 Figure 6: Themes for strategies implemented to create a shift from good to great ....... 112 Figure 7: Themes for factors that could have improved performances in direct comparison athletes ....................................................................................... 131 x