GNSS — Global Navigation Satellite Systems: GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and more PDF
Preview GNSS — Global Navigation Satellite Systems: GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and more
W Bernhard Hofmann-Wellenhof Herbert Lichtenegger Elmar Wasle GNSS – Global Navigation Satellite Systems GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and more SpringerWienNewYork Dr. Bernhard Hofmann-Wellenhof Dr. Herbert Lichtenegger Institut für Navigation und Satellitengeodäsie Technische Universität Graz, Graz, Austria Dr. Elmar Wasle TeleConsult Austria GmbH, Graz, Austria This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically those of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations, broadcasting, reproduction by photocopying machines or similar means, and storage in data banks. Product Liability: The publisher can give no guarantee for the information contained in this book. This also refers to that on drug dosage and application thereof. In each individual case the respective user must check the accuracy of the information given by consulting other pharmaceutical literature. The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. © 2008 Springer-Verlag Wien Printed in Austria SpringerWienNewYork is part of Springer Science + Business Media, springeronline.com Typesetting: Composition by authors Cover illustration: Elmar Wasle, Graz Printing: Strauss GmbH, Mörlenbach, Germany Printed on acid-free and chlorine-free bleached paper SPIN 11524427 With 95 Figures Library of Congress Control Number 2007938636 ISBN 978-3-211-73012-6 SpringerWienNewYork WasduererbtvondeinenElternhast, Erwirbes,umeszubesitzen. JohannWolfgangvonGoethe Faust,DerTragödieErsterTeil,Nacht. (slightlymodified) To our Parents! Foreword Some years ago, I discussed with the Springer publishing company the issue of a book on Galileo because the contours of the European development began to evolve and the puzzle of so many contributing pieces revealed some recognizable features. Springer, however, successfully convinced me to combine the planned Galileobookwiththeexisting“GPS–theoryandpractice”book.Originally,Ihad declared the fifth edition of this book as the last one. However, in combination with Galileo, the generic parts could easily be used after an appropriate update. SinceGLONASSshowedclearindicationsofasoonrenaissanceafteraverylong periodofinsufficientmaintenancewithrespecttothenumberofavailablesatellites, aproperconsiderationinthebookwasalsorequired. “GNSS – GPS, GLONASS, Galileo & more” – is this title correct? This sim- ple question is not that easily to be answered. Following a definition as given in thedocumentA/CONF.184/BP/4onsatellitenavigationandlocationsystemspub- lishedin1998bytheUnitedNationsasonecontributionintheframeoftheThird United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, “theGlobalNavigationSatelliteSystem(GNSS)isaspace-basedradiopositioning system that includes one or more satellite constellations, augmented as necessary tosupporttheintendedoperation,andthatprovides24-hourthree-dimensionalpo- sition, velocity, and time information to suitably equipped users anywhere on, or near, the surface of the earth (and sometimes off earth)”. The definition continues with the two (current) core elements of satellite navigation systems, namely GPS andGLONASS. Thetitle“GNSS–GPS,GLONASS,Galileo&more”adequatelyfitsintothis definition. However, it is necessary to spend a few more sentences on this sub- ject because the use of the acronym GNSS is not unique. By a large majority, the acronym GNSS is used for global navigation satellite systems, where the point is thepluraloftheword“system”.SomeauthorslikeGlenGibbons,theeditorofthe magazineInsideGNSS,evenstressthisbywritingGNSSes.Thepluraloftheword “system”isjustifiedbythefactthattherearemorethanonesystem,e.g.,GPSand GLONASS,andeachofthesesystemsisaglobalnavigationsatellitesystem. However, in the strict sense of the definition given above, considering these systems together and denoting them by a single term yields (now singular!) the globalnavigationsatellitesystem. There is one more item of the subtitle to be discussed. The ampersand “&” is asymbolstandingfortheword“and”.Sincethereisnoseriescommabetweenthe word “Galileo” and the ampersand (because it does not look nicely), “Galileo & more” form one entity. This may be argued by the similarity of the current stage viii ofdevelopmentanddeploymentofGalileoandtheothersystemsliketheChinese BeidouortheIndianIRNSS. Thisbookisauniversity-levelintroductorytextbook.Aslongaspossible,thebook sticks to GNSS in the generic sense to describe various reference systems, satel- liteorbits,satellitesignals,observables,mathematicalmodelsforpositioning,data processing, and data transformation. With respect to the individual systems GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and others, primarily the specific reference systems, the ser- vices, the space and the control segment, as well as the signal structure are de- scribed.Thus,itisreallyabookprimarilyonGNSStocoveralsopossiblyevolving futuresystems. Thereadershouldbeawareofthefactthatthemainscientificbackgroundofall authorsisgeodesy.ThisisnarrowedevenmorebythefactthattheGrazUniversity ofTechnologyistheircommonalmamater. Herbert Lichtenegger and I are members of the Institute of Navigation and Satellite Geodesy of the Graz University of Technology. Elmar Wasle has been employed at the TeleConsult Austria GmbH since 2001, a company dealing with nationalandinternationalresearchanddevelopmentprojectsonGNSS.Heisalso linkedtothesameinstitutebyteachingGalileoinaregularcourse. This is important to stress because the geodetic background and geodetic per- spectivesmaysometimesdominate. Dr.BenjaminW.Remondi,retiredfromtheUSNationalGeodeticSurvey,de- serves credit and thanks. He has carefully read and corrected almost the full vol- ume. His many suggestions and improvements, critical remarks and proposals are gratefullyacknowledged. Dipl.-Ing. Hans-Peter Ranner from the Institute of Navigation and Satellite GeodesyoftheGrazUniversityofTechnologyhasambitiouslysupportedthegen- esis of the book. He has helped in many respects, e.g., by searching for proper references, by structuring some concepts for the derivation of formulas, or by re- calculatingsomeofthenumericalexamples. Prof.Dr.ManfredWieserfromtheInstituteofNavigationandSatelliteGeodesy of the Graz University of Technology has given us a special lecture on how to correctlyinterpretandfullyunderstandrotationmatrices. The index of the book was produced using a computer program written by ElmarWasle.Thisprogramalsohelpedinthedetectionofspellingerrors. ThebookiscompiledbasedonthetextsystemLATEX andthefiguresaredrawn byusingCorelDRAW. WearealsogratefultotheSpringerpublishingcompanyforsupportingadvice andcooperation. April2007 B.Hofmann-Wellenhof Preface The book is divided into 14 chapters. A list of acronyms, a section of references, and a detailed index, which should immediately help in finding certain topics of interest,complementthebook. The first chapter provides a brief historical review. It shows the origins of sur- veyingandhowglobalsurveyingtechniqueshavebeendeveloped.Inaddition,the mainaspectsofpositioningandnavigatingusingsatellitesaredescribed. The second chapter deals with the reference systems, such as coordinate and timesystems.Thecelestialandtheterrestrialreferenceframesareexplainedinthe sectiononcoordinatesystems,andthetransformationbetweenthemisshown.The definition of different times is given in the section on time systems, together with appropriateconversionformulas. The third chapter is dedicated to satellite orbits. This chapter specifically de- scribes orbit representation, the determination of the Keplerian and the perturbed motion,aswellasthedisseminationoftheorbitaldata. The fourth chapter covers the satellite signal in a generic form. It shows the fundamentalsofthesignalstructurewithitsvariouscomponentsandtheprinciples ofsignalprocessing. The fifth chapter deals with the observables. The data acquisition comprises codeandphasepseudorangesandDopplerdata.Thechapteralsocontainsthedata combinations, both the phase combinations and the phase/code range combina- tions.Influencesaffectingtheobservablesaredescribed:theatmosphericandrela- tivisticeffects,theimpactoftheantennaphasecenter,andmultipath. Thesixthchaptercoversmathematicalmodelsforpositioning.Modelsforob- served data are investigated. Therefore, models for point positioning, differential positioning,andrelativepositioning,basedonvariousdatasets,arederived. The seventh chapter comprises the data processing and deals with cycle slip detection and repair. This chapter also discusses phase ambiguity resolution. The methodofleast-squaresadjustmentisassumedtobeknowntothereaderand,there- fore,onlyabriefreview(includingtheprincipleofKalmanfiltering)ispresented. Consequently,nodetailsaregivenapartfromthelinearizationofthemathematical models,whicharetheinputfortheadjustmentprocedure. The eighth chapter links the GNSS results to a local datum. The necessary transformations are given. The combination of GNSS and terrestrial data is also considered. ThechaptersninethroughelevenfocusonGPS,GLONASS,andGalileo.The respective reference systems for coordinates and time are explained and the space segmentandthecontrolsegmentaredescribed.Thesignalstructureisspecified. x The twelfth chapter deals with additional system developments and investiga- tionslikeBeidou,QZSS,andothers.Alsodifferentialsystemsandsystemaugmen- tationslikeWAAS,EGNOS,andothersaretreated. ThethirteenthchapterdescribessomeapplicationsofGNSS.Amongsomeoth- ers,positiondetermination,attitudedetermination,andtimetransferaredescribed inageneralway.Thecombinationofsatellite-basedsystemsperseandtheintegra- tionwithothersystems,suchasinertialnavigationsystems(INS),arementioned. The fourteenth chapter deals with the future of GNSS and how the user may benefitfromtheongoingdevelopment.Thisfuturewillsubstantiallybeaffectedby theinternationalcompetitionontheGNSSmarket. In the list of abbreviations and acronyms, the first letter of the explanations is al- ways a capital letter; otherwise, capital letters are generally used only if a distinct organization or a uniquely specified systemis described. Withinthe text, the writ- ing appears analogously. When the plural of an acronym is needed, no lowercase “s” is added. Articles before acronyms are frequently omitted even if they would berequiredwhenreplacingtheacronymsbytheirexplanations. Symbolsrepresentingavectororamatrixarewritteninboldface.Toindicatea transposition,thesuperscript“T”isused.Theinnerorscalarproductoftwovectors is indicated by a dot “·”. The norm of a vector, i.e., its length, is indicated by two double-bars “(cid:1)”. Vectors not related to matrices are written either as column or as rowvectors,whateverismoreconvenient. Geodesists will not find the traditional “±” for accuracy or precision values. Implicitly, this double sign is certainly implied. Thus, if a measured distance of 100m has a precision of 0.05m, the geodetic writing (100 ± 0.05)m means that thesolutionmaybeintherangeof99.95mand100.05m. Internet citations within the text omit the part “http://” if the address con- tains“www”;therefore,“www.esa.int”means“http://www.esa.int”.Also,thereare no dates given to specify a guaranteed correctness of the address. Implicitly this means, all Internet addresses were tested to work properly before the manuscript washandedovertothepublisherinApril2007. Usually, Internet addresses given in the text are not repeated in the list of ref- erences. Therefore, the list of references does not yield a complete picture of the referencesused. TheuseoftheInternetsourcescausedsometroublesforthefollowingreason. Whenlookingforaproperandconciseexplanationordefinition,quiteoftenidenti- caldescriptionswerefoundatdifferentlocations.Sotheunsolvableproblemarose tofigureouttheearlierandoriginalsource.Inthesecases,sometimesthedecision was made, to avoid a possible conflict of interests, by omitting the citation of the source at all. This means that some phrases or sentences may have been adapted from Internet sources. On the other side, as soon as this book is released, it may xi andwillalsoserveasaninputsourceforseveralhomepages. The(American)spellingofawordisadoptedfromWebster’sDictionaryofthe English Language (third edition, unabridged), which may also be accessed elec- tronically at www.merriam-webster.com. Apart from typical differences like the American “leveling” in contrast to the British “levelling”, this may lead to other divergences when comparing dictionaries. Webster’s Dictionary always combines the negation “non” and the following word without hyphen unless a capital let- ter follows. Therefore “nongravitational”, “nonpropulsed”, “nonsimultaneity” and “non-European”arecorrespondingspellings. For the bibliographical references, the general guideline was to cite no source publishedbefore1990.However,thisruleneedsanexceptionforsomepublications playingafundamentalrole. Finally, the authors do not endorse products or manufacturers. The inclusion bynameofacommercialcompanyorproductdoesnotconstituteanendorsement bytheauthors.Inprinciple,suchinclusionswereavoidedwheneverpossible.Only those names which played a key role in the technological development are men- tionedforhistoricalpurposes. April2007 B.Hofmann-Wellenhof H.Lichtenegger E.Wasle
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