Global Biodiversity: Status of the Earth’s Living Resources

609 Pages·1992·46.36 MB·English

by  Richard Thomas (auth.), Brian Groombridge (eds.)

Global Biodiversity
Status of the Earth' s Living Resources
A Report compiled by
the
W orld Conservation Monitoring Centre
Editor: Brian Groombridge
VK>RLD CONSERVATION
MONITOR ING CENTRE
in collaboration with
The Natural History Museum, London
and in association with
IUCN - The World Conservation Union
UNEP - United Nations Environment Programme
WWF - World Wide Fund for Nature
and the
W orld Resources Institute
~l~
NATURAl ~~~
MHIUSTSOlURMY WWF
•
With project sponsorship from
Overseas Development Administration, UK
and additional support from
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Netherlands
The Ministry of the Environment, Denmark
and
The World Bank
SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.
This report is a contribution to GEMS - The Global Environment Monitoring System
First edition 1992
(O 1992 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
Originally published by Chapman & Hall in 1992
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1s t edition 1992
Reproduced from camera-ready copy prepared by WCMC.
Recycled paper supplied by Robert Horoe Paper Co Ltd.
ISBN 978-94-010-5012-8 ISBN 978-94-011-2282-5 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-94-011-2282-5
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted
under UK. Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, stored, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the
case of reprographic reproduction only in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright
Licensing Agency in the UK., or in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the appropriate
Reproduction Rights Organisation outside the UK. Enquiries conceming reproduction outside the terms stated
here should be sent to the publishers at the London address printed on this page.
The publisher makes no representation, express or implied with regard to the accuracy of the information
contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that
may be made.
Citation: World Conservation Monitoring Centre (1992) Global Biodiversity: Status ofthe Earth's living
resources. Chapman & Hali, London. xx + 594pp.
Also available from IUCN Publications Services Unit, 181a Huntingdon Road, Cambridge,CB3 ODJ
Cover Photos Mugger, Crocodylus palustris: Brian Groombridge
Guzmania lingulata: D. Muleax
Fish market, Indonesia: Tom Moss/WWF Photo library
Henri Pittier National Park, Venezuela: Paul Goriup
The designations of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the
expres sion of any opinion whatsoever on the part of WCMC or its sponsoring orgaoisations concerning the
legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or conceroing the delimitation of its frontiers
or boundaries. In recent years geopolitical entities have become more fluid and this is not reflected consistently
in the tables which were completed at different times and use data of different ages.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Contents
ow to
ments
Pre ace
iOdiversity -
art 1. BIOI.:
The nature and origin of genetic variation 1
Measuring genetic variation 1
The interpretation of variation 3
The environment and the distribution of genetic variation 3
Conclusion 6
2. S ST ATICS ADD ERSITY ______________________________7
Biological classification 7
Phylogenetic relationships and their estimation 7
From hierarchy to classification 7
Taxonomic nomenclature and its re~ulation 9
Major features of the hierarchy of hfe 10
Systematics and the measurement of biodiversity 11
S EC C
What is a species? 13
Early species concepts 13
Evolutionary theory and polytypic species 13
The biological species concept 14
The {>hylogenetic species concept 15
Species in practice 15
Conclusion 16
SPECIES I VENTORY 17
Current status 17
Prediction from the existing partial inventory 20
Other approaches to predicting patterns 23
Uncharted realms of species richness 26
Sampling the hyper-diverse but poorly known 31
New data on tropical insects and what they convey 32
Prospects for improved species richness estimates 36
5. SPECIES DIVERS
A brief history of diversity 40
Measuring biological diversity 41
The global distribution of species richness 43
Species and energy 45
Explanations and hypotheses 46
iii
Taxonomic scope 47
Assessment of diversity 47
Species concepts in microorganisms 47
Extent of genetic diversity 49
Regions and habitats of maximum diversity 49
Role of microorganisms in biodi versity maintenance 50
Role of microorganisms in biosphere functions 51
Potential contribution of microorganisms to sustainable development 51
The need for diversity amongst microorganisms 52
Ex situ conservation of microorganisms 52
The taxonomic challenge 52
Bryophytes 55
Lichens 55
Algae 57
The groups of higher plants 64
The distribution of higher plants 65
Nematode diversity 88
The ecological importance of nematodes 90
Deep-sea communities 93
Ocean trenches 95
Hydrothermal vents 98
Cold seeps 100
Soil and soil fauna 103
Patterns of species richness 105
General patterns of diversity 113
The diversity of fishes 116
Freshwater fishes: species richness and endemism 116
Subterranean fishes 121
Coral reef fishes 122
The group's of higher vertebrates 136
The distnbution of higher vertebrates 137
Plants on oceanic islands 148
Land snails 149
Introduction 154
Methods of determinin~ areas of conservation priority 154
Centres of plant diversity 157
Centres of avian endemism 161
iv
PEClESW
16 SPECIES EXT eno 192
How species become vulnerable to extinction 192
A brief history of extinctions 196
Extinctions in recent history 198
Current and future extinction rates 202
17. THREATENEDSPEC~ 23
What is a threatened species? 234
Globally threatened animals 236
Aquatic habitats 242
Threatened species on islands: plants 244
Threatened species on islands: birds 245
18. GLOBAL HABITAT CLASSlFlC TIO 24
Ecosystem mapping 248
Estimating rates of change of ecosystems 250
19. BIODIVERSITY AND GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE 25
Modellinf global climate change 254
Effects 0 climate change on vegetation zones and biodiversity 254
20. TROPICAL M01ST FORESTS 256
What are tropical moist forests? 256
The global area of tropical moist forest 257
Factors involved in changes in forest cover 264
Management practices in tropical forests 267
Case studies 269
21. GRASSLANDS 280
The world area of grassland 280
Origins and floral diversity of grasslands 280
The 20th century impact on grasslands 284
Case studies 288
22. WETLANDS 293
Global extent and distribution of wetlands 293
Reiional extent and distribution of wetlands 295
Va ues and threats 297
Loss of wetlands 298
Conservation of wetlands 302
23. CORAL REEFS 301
Occurrence of reefs 307
Values and threats 307
24. M GROVES 324
The mangrove habitat 324
Value of mangroves 324
Threats to mangrove habitats 324
v
25. PLANT USE 331
Food plants 331
Timber 342
Rattans 350
Medicinal plants 350
Ornamental plants 353
26. ANIMAL USE 359
Introduction 359
Food: terrestrial animals 359
Food: fisheries 365
Non-food uses 374
Domestic livestock 389
27. BIODIVERSITY AND ECO OMICS 407
Valuing the environment 407
Loss of biodiversity as an economic process 409
Current uses of diverse resources 411
Community use of wildlife resources 411
Ecotourism 413
Existence values 415
The valuation of diverse ecosystems 417
The value of tropical forests 417
The value of wetlands 421
Preserving future options 425
The value of diverSity in providing insurance: crop yields 426
Sources of yield variability 429
Crop insurance: the response to increased agricultural risk 430
The value of a~ricultural ~enetic diversity 432
The value of biodiversity 10 the production of pharmaceuticals 434
OF BIODIVERSITY
28. NATIO AL LEGISLATIO 441
The protection of wild flora 441
The protection of wild fauna 442
Limitations of species lerislation 444
The protection of natura habitats 444
9. PROTECTED AREAS 44~
National protected area systems 447
International protected area systems 459
30. MULTILATERAL TREATIES 479
------------------------------
Multilateral treaties 479
vi
Funding 490
International obligations: protected areas 494
Intellectual property ri~hts for biotechnology 495
Regulated trading in wIldlife products 499
Regional seas programme 501
International development assistance 506
Bilateral development assistance 507
Multilateral development assistance 509
International assistance in forest management 514
The tropical forestry action plan (TFAP) 514
The international tropical timber agreement (ITIA) 518
Debt purchase 522
International fisheries management commissions 528
Antarctica: the evolution of an international resource management regime 534
In situ conservation of threatened plant species 545
In situ conservation of crops and wild relatives of crops 546
Institutions involved in ex situ conservation of plants 549
Techniques for ex situ plant conservation 557
In situ conservation of animals 561
Ex situ conservation of animals 563
Ex situ conservation of animal genetic resources 571
Ex situ conservation of microbial diversity 571
Background 576
The biodiversity convention 576
The biodiversity country studies and unmet financial needs 579
Future data needs: networking and global monitoring 581
vii
How to Use this Book
An extensive review of global biodiversity obviously generates substantial quantities of data with the
concomitant problem of how best to present this mass of material. Global Biodiversity is intended to be a
source-book of information and analysis rather than be read cover to cover, so assisting the reader fmd hislher
way around the book is essential.
The primary means of accessing this wealth of information is through the Contents list (page iii). This is
therefore very detailed and serves some of the function of an index (which it has not been practical to include
because of excess length). The reader is urged to browse the Contents before dipping into the text.
The book is divided into three Parts, each of which opens with a brief overview of its structure and contents.
The Parts are then divided into ten Sections that group together Chapters that address a common theme. This
structure is outlined below as a guide to the overall organisation of the book.
Part 1. Biological Diversity
• Systematics and diversity
• Species diversity
• Species loss
• Habitats and ecosystems
Part 2. Uses and Values of Biodiversity
• Uses of biological resources
• Valuing. biodiversity
Part 3. Conservation and Management of Biodiversity
• National policies and instruments
• International policies and instruments
• Current practices in conservation
• Biodiversity Convention
Individual Chapters are divided thematically by major sub-headings, and these are fully listed in the Contents,
which is therefore the key entry point for access to the information.
As far as possible, plain English has been used rather than scientific terminology, but when the use of obscure
technical language has been unavoidable a definition has been provided in the Glossary.
viii
World Conservation Monitoring Centre
The Earth's biological diversity and other natural resources provide many economic, social and aesthetic
benefits to mankind. Effective programmes for sustainable human development must, therefore, incorporate
conservation objectives. Responsible institutions and individuals need access to a service that provides factual
information on conservation issues in a timely, focused and professional way.
This service is provided by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. Established in
1988 as a company limited by guarantee with charitable status, WCMC is managed as a joint-venture between
the three partners in the World Conservation Strategy and its successor Caring For The Earth: IUCN - The
World Conservation Union, UNEP - United Nations Environment Programme, and WWF - World Wide
Fund for Nature. Its mission is to provide information on the status, security, management and utilisation of
the world's biological diversity to support conservation and sustainable development.
To implement this mission, WCMC maintains substantial databases on the status and distribution of plant and
animal species of conservation and development interest; habitats of conservation concern, particularly tropical
forests, coral reefs and wetlands; the global network of national parks and protected areas; and the international
trade in wildlife species and their derivative products. Much of this information is managed with Geographic
Information Systems, and is supported by an extensive bibliography of published and "grey" literature. WCMC
is also involved in providing support for the expansion of national data management and monitoring capabilities
in developing countries, and in developing communication networks for the flow of information.
WCMC contributes its biodiversity data to GEMS - the Global Environment Monitoring System, co-ordinated
by UNEP. GEMS is a collective programme of the world community to acquire, through global monitoring,
and assessment, the data that are needed for the rational management of the environment. GEMS is an element
of the United Nations Earthwatch programme.
WCMC Biodiversity Report Team
John McComb Project Manager
Dr Brian Groombridge Editor and Research Co-ordinator
Esther Byford Production Supervisor
Crawford Allan Research
John Howland Research
Dr Chris Magin Research
Helen Smith Research
Veronica Greenwood Production
Lindsay Simpson Production
Consultant Assistant Editors
Martin Jenkins (general)
Timothy M. Swanson (economics and policy)
Hugh Synge (plants)
WCMC Staff who contributed to the compilation and review process:
Mike Adam, Clare Billington, Simon Blyth, Gillian Bunting, John Caldwell, Lorraine Collins, Dr Mark
Collins, Mary Cordiner, Helen Corrigan, Robert Cubey, John Easy, Jeremy Harrison, Tim Inskipp, Dr
Timothy Johnson, Beverley Lewis, Dr Richard Luxmoore, Lesley McGuffog, Sheila Millar, Dr Ronald I.
Miller, James R. Paine, Dr Robin Pellew, Corinna Ravilious, Jonathan Rhind, Sarah Skinner, Jo Taylor,
Dr Kerry Walter.
ix
Acknowledgements
The production of this Report has been based largely upon the substantial biodiversity databases that WCMC
manages, supplemented by a major world-wide data gathering and standardisation programme. This
information is drawn from an extensive network of scientists, research workers, park managers, wildlife
authorities, conservation bodies and government organisations. WCMC would like to express its thanks for
the contributions of these individuals and agencies, too numerous to mention individually, without whose
support we would not be able to operate.
WCMC particularly recognises with gratitude the fundamental contribution of both the IUCN Species Survival
Commission (SSC) and the Commission of National Parks and Protected Areas (CNPPA), whose commitment
to W CM C over the years has enabled the Centre to expand its databases. Their data have been used extensively
in the Report. WCMC also acknowledges the support of the IUCN Environmental Law Centre, whose legal
data and expertise have contributed significantly.
In compiling the Report itself, WCMC particularly acknowledges the major contributions of the following
people whose names appear at the end of the relevant chapter (unattributed chapters were provided by WCMC
staff):
Dr John Akeroyd, Bruce Aylward, Dr Keith Banister, Dr Gordon Brent Ingram, Dr B.N.K. Davis, Victoria
Drake, Alan Eddy, B.C. Eversham, Alix Flavelle, Shirra Freedman, D.J. Galloway, Sarah Gammage,
Dr Stephen J.G. Hall, Dr P.N. Halpin, Peter Hammond, David Hanrahan, Dr Caroline Harcourt, Prof. D.L.
Hawksworth, Richard J. Hornby, Nigel Howard, Martin Jenkins, David M. John, Sam Johnston, A.S. Jolliffe,
E.A. Leadlay, Dr Rik Leemans, Mike Maunder, Sara Oldfield, Greg Rose, Timothy M. Swanson, Hugh
Synge, Richard Thomas, Ian Tittley, Susan M. Wells, Dr P.S. Wyse Jackson, Dr R.I. Vane-Wright.
The first four chapters were contributed by staff of The Natural History Museum, London. WCMC is
especially grateful for their assistance, and for the efforts of John Peake (Associate Director, Scientific
Development) in facilitating this collaboration.
In addition, WCMC would like to express thanks to the following who have contributed to the compilation
of this Report in a variety of ways:
Dr Dennis Adams, Suraya Affiff, Dr J.Crinan Alexander, M. Altieri, Dr Chris Andrews, Dr Martin Angel,
Prof. Peter Ashton, Margerita Astralaga. Dr Paul Bamps, Dr John Beard, Dr S. Beck, Dr Henk Beentje,
Dr Colin J. Bibby, Dr Mike Bingham, Dr William Block, Dr Robert Boden, Dr A. Bogan, Dr Attila Borhidi,
Dr Philippe Bouchet, Prof. Loutfy Boulos, Dr David Bramwell, Dr F.J. Breteler, Dr Harold Brookfield,
Dr Dick Brummitt, David Brunner, Dr Francoise Burhenne-Guilmin, Victor Bullen, Dr Yvonne A. Byron,
Dr J. Cardiel, Dr Jan Cerovsky, Jim Chapman, Dr Arthur D. Chapman, Dr A. Cleef, P. Colman, Dr R.
Cowie, Dr Quentin Cronk, Mike J. Crosby, James Culverwell II, Michael Dadd, Dr Patricia Davila, Stephen
D. Davis, D.G. Debouck, Dr Jean-Jacques de Granville, Dr Robert DeFilipps, A. Delsaerdt, Nelly Diego,
Dr C. Dodson, Dr John Dransfield, Dr J. Duivenvoorden, M. Dulude, Dr K. Emberton, Lynne Farrell, Prof.
Philip M. Fearnside, Dr Richard Felger, Rosa M. Fonseca, Dr F .R. Fosberg, Dr F. Friedmann, Dr Ib Friis,
Dr John D. Gage, Dr F. Galena, Dr Rodrigo Gamez, Dr Sam M. Gan III, Dr Martin Gardner, N. Gardner,
Dr Steve Gartlan, Dr Alwin Gentry, Dr David Given, Prof. C~sar G6mez Campo, Dr Roger Good, Dr R.
Gopalan, Dr Frederick Grassle, Peter Green, O. Griffiths, Liz Guerin, Prof. Nimal Gunatilleke, Dr M.
Hadfield, Dr S. Halloy, Dr Ole Hamann, Dr Alan Hamilton, Dr Stephen Harris, Melanie F. Heath, Dr A.N.
Henry, Dr Derral Herbst, Prof. Vernon Heywood, Craig Hilton-Taylor, Dr A. Hoffmann, Dr Martin
W. Holdgate, E. Hoyt, Dr Otto Huber, Prof. Dr Gordon Brent Ingram, Dr Frank Ingwersen, Dr Walter
Ivantsoff, Prof. K. Iwatsuki, Dr Peter Wyse Jackson, Dr J. J~r~mie, Prof. Robert Johns, Dr Marshall
Johnston, Dr M. Jorgensen, Dr Calestous Juma, Prof. Horng Jye-Su, Dr Ruth Kiew, Dr T. Killeen, Prof.
V. Krassilov, Dr John Lambshead, Prof. Elias Landolt, Dr R. Lara, Dr John Leigh, Dr David Lellinger,
Christine Leon, Blanca Le6n, Dr E. Lleras, Dr Paul V. Loiselle, Adrian J. Long, Francisco Lorea,
Dr Rosemary Lowe-MacConnell, Lucio Lozado, Prof. Grenville Lucas, Olga Herrera-MacBryde, Dr Kathy
MacKinnon, Jane MacKnight, Lynne Maclennan, Dr Domingo Madulid, Mike Maunder, Dr Niall McCarten,
x