Ginkgo Biloba (Medicinal and Aromatic Plants - Industrial Profiles)

527 Pages·2000·5.9 MB·English

by  Teris A vanBeek

GINKGO BILOBA
Copyright © 2000 OPA (Overseas Publishers Association) N.V. Published by license under the Harwood Academic Publishers imprint, part of The
Gordon and Breach Publishing Group.
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants—Industrial Profiles
Individual volumes in this series provide both industry and academia with in-depth coverage
of one major medicinal or aromatic plant of industrial importance.
Edited by Dr Roland Hardman
Volume 1
Valerian
edited by Peter J.Houghton
Volume 2
Perilla
edited by He-Ci Yu, Kenichi Kosuna and Megumi Haga
Volume 3
Poppy
edited by Jenö Bernáth
Volume 4
Cannabis
edited by David T.Brown
Volume 5
Neem
H.S.Puri
Volume 6
Ergot
edited by Vladimír Kren and Ladislav Cvak
Volume 7
Caraway
edited by Éva Németh
Volume 8
Saffron
edited by Moshe Negbi
Volume 9
Tea Tree
edited by Ian Southwell and Robert Lowe
Volume 10
Basil
edited by Raimo Hiltunen and Yvonne Holm
Volume 11
Fenugreek
edited by Georgious Petropoulos
Volume 12
Ginkgo biloba
edited by Teris A.van Beek
Other volumes in preparation
Allium, edited by K.Chan
Alloes, edited by A.Dweck and R.George
Artemisia, edited by C.Wright
Cardamom, edited by P.N.Ravindran and K.J.Madusoodanan
Chamomile, edited by R.Franke and H.Schilcher
Cinnamon and Cassia, edited by P.N.Ravindran and S.Ravindran
Colchicum, edited by V.Šimánek
Curcuma, edited by B.A.Nagasampagi and A.P.Purohit
Please see the back of this book for other volumes in preparation in Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants—Industial Profiles.
Copyright © 2000 OPA (Overseas Publishers Association) N.V. Published by license under the Harwood Academic Publishers imprint, part of The
Gordon and Breach Publishing Group.
GINKGO BILOBA
Edited by
Teris A.van Beek
Laboratory of Organic Chemistry
Wageningen Agricultural University
The Netherlands
harwood academic publishers
Australia (cid:129) Canada (cid:129) France (cid:129) Germany (cid:129) India (cid:129) Japan
Luxembourg (cid:129) Malaysia (cid:129) The Netherlands (cid:129) Russia (cid:129) Singapore
Switzerland
Copyright © 2000 OPA (Overseas Publishers Association) N.V. Published by license under the Harwood Academic Publishers imprint, part of The
Gordon and Breach Publishing Group.
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2006.
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Copyright © 2000 OPA (Overseas Publishers Association) N.V. Published by license
under the Harwood Academic Publishers imprint, part of The Gordon and Breach
Publishing Group.
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No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means,
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN 0-203-30494-2 Master e-book ISBN
ISBN 0-203-34306-9 (Adobe eReader Format)
ISBN: 90-5702-488-8 (Print Edition)
ISSN: 1027-4502
Copyright © 2000 OPA (Overseas Publishers Association) N.V. Published by license under the Harwood Academic Publishers imprint, part of The
Gordon and Breach Publishing Group.
CONTENTS
Foreword vii
Preface to the Series ix
Contributors xi
Introduction 1
Teris A.van Beek
1 The Evolution, Ecology, and Cultivation of Ginkgo biloba 7
Peter Del Tredici
2 Ginkgo biloba L.: Aspects of the Systematical and Applied Botany 25
Volker Melzheimer and Johannes J.Lichius
3 Lignification of Xylem Cell Walls of Ginkgo biloba 49
Noritsugu Terashima and Kazuhiko Fukushima
4 Cultivation of Ginkgo biloba on a Large Scale 63
Dominique Laurain
5 Plant Cell Biotechnology of Ginkgo 81
Danielle Julie Carrier and Dominique Laurain
6 Ginkgo biloba—Large Scale Extraction and Processing 99
Joe O’Reilly

7 Chemical Constituents of Ginkgo biloba 109
Andreas Hasler
8 A Personal Account of the Early Ginkgolide Structural Studies 143
Koji Nakanishi
9 Chemical Analysis of Ginkgo Terpene Trilactones 151
Teris A.van Beek
10 The Analysis of Ginkgo Flavonoids 179
Otto Sticher, Beat Meier and Andreas Hasler
11 Occurrence and Analysis of Alkyl Phenols in Ginkgo biloba 203
Luisella Verotta, Paolo Morazzoni and Federico Peterlongo
12 Occurrence and Analysis of Ginkgo Polyprenols 215
Hoon Huh
13 Considerations in the Development of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia’s
Monograph on Ginkgo biloba L. 229
V.Srini Srinivasan
v
Copyright © 2000 OPA (Overseas Publishers Association) N.V. Published by license under the Harwood Academic Publishers imprint, part of The
Gordon and Breach Publishing Group.
vi CONTENTS
14 Industrial Quality Control of Ginkgo Products 245
Fabrizio F.Camponovo and Fabio Soldati

15 History, Development and Constituents of EGb 761 267
Katy Drieu and Hermann Jaggy

16 In Vitro Studies of the Pharmacological and Biochemical Activities
of Ginkgo biloba Extract (EGb 761) and its Constituents 279
Francis V.DeFeudis and Katy Drieu

17 In Vivo Studies of the Pharmacological and Biochemical Activities
of Ginkgo biloba Extract (EGb 761) and its Constituents 303
Katy Drieu and Francis V.DeFeudis

18 The Neuroprotective Properties of Ginkgo Extracts 331
Cynthia L.Darlington, Paul F.Smith and Karyn Maclennan

19 Ginkgo biloba Extracts for the Treatment of Cerebral Insufficiency
and Dementia 345
Joerg Schulz, Peter Halama and Robert Hoerr

20 Clinical Uses of Ginkgo biloba Extract in the Field of Peripheral
Arterial Occlusive Disease (PAOD) 371
Bernard Bulling, Norbert Clemens and Volker Dankers

21 Efficacy of Ginkgo biloba Special Extracts—Evidence from
Randomized Clinical Trials 385
Martien C.J.M.van Dongen, Erik van Rossum and Paul Knipschild

22 Adverse Effects and Toxicity of Ginkgo Extracts 443
Herman J.Woerdenbag and Peter A.G.M.De Smet

23 Food Poisoning by Ginkgo Seeds: The Role of 4-O-Methylpyridoxine 453
Keiji Wada

24 Homeopathic Uses of Ginkgo biloba 467
Frans M.van den Dungen

25 Cosmetical Uses of Ginkgo Extracts and Constituents 475
Ezio Bombardelli, Aldo Cristoni and Paolo Morazzoni

26 Patents of Ginkgo biloba and its Constituents 491
Marian A.J.T.van Gessel

27 The Marketing and Economic Aspects of Ginkgo biloba Products 517
Gopi Warrier and Amy Corzine

28 The Ginkgo, Past, Present and Future 523
Yves Christen
Copyright © 2000 OPA (Overseas Publishers Association) N.V. Published by license under the Harwood Academic Publishers imprint, part of The
Gordon and Breach Publishing Group.
FOREWORD
It is a very encouraging and healthy sign that folk medicinal knowledge and practice
has started to gain recognition among the populace and the medical professionals,
although there still exist hard core opponents who only think in terms of so-called
Western drugs. The revival in interest is reflected in the recent establishment of chairs
in alternative medicine or natural medicine at universities even in the USA where
recognition lagged far behind other continents. There is no doubt that folk medicinal
herbs, which have been used for thousands of years, are effective and complementary
to modern medicine. The knowledge and practice in natural medicine is comfortably
accepted in the households of most countries independent of the stage of development
of that nation. The interest has been traditionally high in countries such as China,
Germany and Japan, and certainly in undeveloped areas healing through herb
treatment is the norm. The official record of herbs, which started in China around
2800 BC, continues to provide the Chinese medicine and pharmacognosy community
with a wealth of precious knowledge. Folk medicinal treatment is also widespread in
the South American and African rain forests and similar areas, but here the knowledge
is transmitted to the next generation through the medicine person or sharman and
not through writing.
The mode of action of plant extracts and other folk medicines are far more
complicated than that of a single compound because they are mixtures of numerous
constituents (a crude plant extract may contain hundreds of constituents). It is probably
true that only a few of the constituents are responsible for the healing effects, while
others are merely present without exerting any effects. Understanding the mode of
action of a Western drug is already complicated enough: what is the receptor(s) and
what chain of events ensue after the interaction leading to healing? Rationalization
and understanding of the effects of folk medicine is no doubt a most challenging but
worthwhile target for future interdisciplinary studies. A broad interdisciplinary
approach to clarify how folk medicine works was almost impossible until quite recently
because of the lack of sophisticated technology and general knowledge. However, we
can now start to be engaged in such approaches and disentangle the role of respective
constituents and their synergism.
Ginkgo biloba, one of the oldest of the documented Chinese herbs, has a proven
remedial record through its hundreds of years of use. At least one group of constituents,
ginkgolide B and related terpenoid lactones have been shown by modern assays to
selectively inhibit platelet activation although this has not led to a single-component
drug. Nevertheless, the sale of the crude extract is increasing at a phenomenal rate
throughout the world. Not many people would resist taking G.biloba extract when
statistics have shown that it helps enhance memory and has a positive effect in slowing
vii
Copyright © 2000 OPA (Overseas Publishers Association) N.V. Published by license under the Harwood Academic Publishers imprint, part of The
Gordon and Breach Publishing Group.
viii FOREWORD
Alzheimer’s disease, with no known adverse effects. It is most opportune that this
plant has been selected to be included in the present series and that the editor has
taken the time and effort to select the topics and contributors for an updated picture
of this fantastic plant from nature.
Koji Nakanishi
Copyright © 2000 OPA (Overseas Publishers Association) N.V. Published by license under the Harwood Academic Publishers imprint, part of The
Gordon and Breach Publishing Group.
PREFACE TO THE SERIES
There is increasing interest in industry, academia and the health sciences in medicinal
and aromatic plants. In passing from plant production to the eventual product used
by the public, many sciences are involved. This series brings together information
which is currently scattered through an ever increasing number of journals. Each
volume gives an in-depth look at one plant genus, about which an area specialist has
assembled information ranging from the production of the plant to market trends
and quality control.
Many industries are involved such as forestry, agriculture, chemical, food, flavour,
beverage, pharmaceutical, cosmetic and fragrance. The plant raw materials are roots,
rhizomes, bulbs, leaves, stems, barks, wood, flowers, fruits and seeds. These yield
gums, resins, essential (volatile) oils, fixed oils, waxes, juices, extracts and spices for
medicinal and aromatic purposes. All these commodities are traded worldwide. A
dealer’s market report for an item may say “Drought in the country of origin has
forced up prices”.
Natural products do not mean safe products and account of this has to be taken
by the above industries, which are subject to regulation. For example, a number of
plants which are approved for use in medicine must not be used in cosmetic products.
The assessment of safe to use starts with the harvested plant material which has to
comply with an official monograph. This may require absence of, or prescribed limits
of, radioactive material, heavy metals, aflatoxins, pesticide residue, as well as the
required level of active principle. This analytical control is costly and tends to exclude
small batches of plant material. Large scale contracted mechanised cultivation with
designated seed or plantlets is now preferable.
Today, plant selection is not only for the yield of active principle, but for the
plant’s ability to overcome disease, climatic stress and the hazards caused by mankind.
Such methods as in vitro fertilisation, meristem cultures and somatic embryogenesis
are used. The transfer of sections of DNA is giving rise to controversy in the case of
some end-uses of the plant material.
Some suppliers of plant raw material are now able to certify that they are supplying
organically-farmed medicinal plants, herbs and spices. The Economic Union directive
(CVO/EU No 2092/91) details the specifications for the obligatory quality controls
to be carried out at all stages of production and processing of organic products.
Fascinating plant folklore and ethnopharmacology leads to medicinal potential.
Examples are the muscle relaxants based on the arrow poison, curare, from species
of Chondrodendron, and the antimalarials derived from species of Cinchona and
Artemisia. The methods of detection of pharmacological activity have become
increasingly reliable and specific, frequently involving enzymes in bioassays and
avoiding the use of laboratory animals. By using bioassay linked fractionation of
ix
Copyright © 2000 OPA (Overseas Publishers Association) N.V. Published by license under the Harwood Academic Publishers imprint, part of The
Gordon and Breach Publishing Group.