Geophysik III / Geophysics III: Teil V / Part V

412 Pages·1976·14.886 MB·English-French

by  Ja. L. Al’pert, T. K. Breus, K. I. Gringauz, W. L. Jones, A. T. Vassy, E. Vassy, W. L. Webb (auth.), Professor Dr. Karl Rawer (eds.)

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PHYSICS
CHIEF EDITOR
S. FLOGGE
VO LUME XLIXI5
GEOPHYSICS III
PART V
BY
JA.L.AL'PERT T.K.BREUS K.I.GRINGAUZ
W. L. JONES A. T. VASSY E. VASSY W. L. WEBB
EDITOR
K. RAWER
WITH 236 FIGURES
SPRINGER-VERLAG
BERLIN HEIDELBERG NEW YORK
1976
HANDBUCH DER PHYSIK
HERAUSGEGEBEN VON
S. FUJGGE
BAND XLIXI5
GEOPHYSIK III
TElL V
VON
JA.L.AL'PERT T.K.BREUS K.I.GRINGAUZ
W.L.JONES A.T.VASSY E.VASSY W.L.WEBB
BANDHERAUSGEBER
K. RAWER
MIT 236 FIGUREN
SPRINGER -VERLAG
BERLIN HEIDELBERG NEW YORK
1976
Professor Dr. SIEGFRIED FLt'rGGE
Physikalisches Institut der Universitat, D-7800 Freiburg i.Br.
Professor Dr. KARL RAWER
Institut fiir Physikalische Weltraumforschung (Fraunhofer-Ges.)' D-7800 Freiburg i.Br.
ISBN-13: 978-3-642-80990-3 e-ISBN-13: 978-3-642-80988-0
DOl: 10.1007/ 978-3-642-80988-0
Das Werk ist urheberrechtlich geschiitzt. Die dadurch begriindeten Rechte, insbesondere die der Uber
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baren ist.
© by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1976.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number A 56-2942.
Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover 1st edition 1976
Die Wiedergabe von Gebrauchsnamen, Handelsnamen, \Varenbezeichnungen usw. in diesem \Verk
berechtigt auch ohne besondere Kennzeichnung nicht zu der Annahme, daJ3 solche Namen im Sinne
der Warenzeichen- und Markenschutz-Gesetzgebung als frei zu betrachten waren und daher von jeder-
mann benutzt werden diirften.
Satz : Universitatsdruckerei H. Stiirtz AG, Wiirzburg.
Contents.
Introductory Remarks. By Professor KARL RAWER ............... .
La luminescence nocturne. (The Nightglow.) Par Dr. ARLETTE T. VASSY et Professeur
Dr. ETIENNE VASSyt, Universite de Paris, Faculte de Sciences de Paris, Laboratoire
de Physique de l'Atmosphere, Paris (France). (Avec 75 figures). 5
A. Luminance du ciel nocturne 13
B. Couleur de la luminescence nocturne . 24
C. Etude spectrale . . . . . . . . . . 25
D. Polarisation de la lumiere du ciel nocturne 44
E. Variations dans Ie temps de la luminescence nocturne 46
F. Variations dans l'espace; altitude des couches emissives 57
G. Correlations avec d'autres phenomenes. . . . . . . 75
H. Origines de la lumiere du ciel nocturne. . . . . . . 83
a
J. Applications la connaissance de la haute atmosphere 95
K. Lueur crepusculaire et diurne . 104
Annexe: Valeurs de sec ex 114
Bibliographie .... 115
Dynamic Structure of the Stratosphere and Mesosphere. By Dr. WILLIS L. WEBB,
Atmospheric Sciences Laboratory, White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico and
Lecturer in Physics, University of Texas, EI Paso, Texas (USA). (With 43 Figures) 117
A. Introduction 117
B. Structure 120
I. Ozonospheric structure . 120
II. Detailed structure . . . 124
III. General thermal structure 129
C. Motions 135
I. The stratospheric circulation 135
II. Stratopause thermal tides 150
III. Upper atmospheric clouds 162
D. Other features 166
I. Atmospheric acoustical structure 166
II. Electrical structure 169
E. Summary 173
General references 175
Linear Internal Gravity Waves in the Atmosphere. By Professor WALTER L. JONES,
University of Canterbury, Christchurch (New Zealand). (With 7 Figures) . 177
A. The linear wave equations in an atmosphere at rest 179
1. General considerations . . . . . . . . . . . 179
VI Contents.
II. Approximations in the horizontal wave equation. 182
III. Approximations in the vertical wave equation 185
B. The isothermal atmosphere . . . . . 186
I. Generalities 186
II. Limiting characteristics of waves 187
III. Special modes ....... . 189
C. Internal gravity waves in fluids with mean flow 191
D. Approximate techniques for solving the wave equations 194
E. Wave reflection and ducting 196
F. The generation and dissipation of waves 202
G. Linear theory of mountain waves 206
H. Wave energy and momentum 209
General references 216
Wave-Like Phenomena in the Near-Earth Plasma and Interactions with Man-Made
Bodies. Professor Dr. JAKOV L. AL'PERT, IZMIRAN, Academy of Sciences of USSR,
Moscow (USSR). (With 89 Figures) 217
Introduction. . . 217
A. Properties and parameters of the near-Earth and interplanetary plasma. Basic
equations . . . . . . . . . . 219
B. Flow around solid bodies moving in a plasma. . . . . . 252
I. Disturbed conditions in the vicinity of moving bodies 253
II. Electric fields in the disturbed vicinity 260
III. Scattering of radio waves from the trail of a rapidly moYing body. 286
IV. Remarks concerning the excitation of waves and the instability of the plasma
around a rapidly moving body ............... . 295
C. Waves and oscillations in the near-Earth plasma and in the ionosphere 300
I. Investigations of ELF waves 302
II. Investigations of VLF waves 316
III. Investigations of LF waves. 329
IV. Investigations of HF waves 335
Notations and symbols 344
General references. 348
Some Characteristic Features of the Ionospheres of Near-Earth Planets. By Professor
Dr. KONSTANTIN I. GRINGAUZ and Dr. TAMARA K. BREUS, Space Research Institute
of the Academy of Sciences of USSR, Moscow (USSR). (With 22 Figures) 351
1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
I. Methods for investigating planetary ionospheres by means of spacecraft 352
2. General characteristics 352
3. Charged-particle traps 353
4. Radio methods. . . . 353
5. Analysis of radio data. 357
6. Difficulties and limitations of the different methods . 358
II. Experimental results of the exploration of the ionospheres of Mars and Venus 360
7. The ionosphere of Mars . . .. ................ 360
8. The ionosphere of Venus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 365
9. Comparison of electron density and temperature profiles in the Martian,
terrestrial and Venusian ionospheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Contents. VII
ITT. Models of the Martian and Venusian ionospheres ........ . 371
10. Generalities: the influence of neutral composition .... . . 371
11. Problems involving the range near the main peak of the profile . 373
12. The upper ionosphere of Venus 376
13. The upper ionosphere of Mars 381
Conclusions . . . . . 381
General references . 381
Sachverzeichnis (Deutsch-Englisch) . 383
Subject Index (English-German) 395
Index (Fran\·ais-Allemand). . . 405
Introductory Remarks.
Volume 49/5 deals with typical phenomena of the upper atmosphere. Natural
optical emissions occurring under magnetically quiet conditions are analyzed by
VASSY and V ASSY. The much stronger auroral emissions were described by
AKAsoFu, CHAPMAN and MEINEL in Vol. 49/1. My dear friend ETIENNE VASSY
died suddenly on October 30, 1969. The first version of his manuscript was just
ready at that time; it was later finalized by his co-author and wife ARLETTE
VASSY.
The two following contributions deal with the dynamic structure of the upper
atmosphere in general and with internal gravity waves in particular. The contri
bution by AL'PERT mainly considers phenomena which appear in the vicinity of
vehicles flying through space plasma-a new subject of mutual interest to space
flight and geophysics. In the same contribution plasma waves and oscillations
are also discussed. In order to allow comparison with the more detailed discussion
by GINZBURG and RUHADZE in Vol. 49/4 an effort was made to have equations
written in compatible shape in both papers. The last contribution of this volume
summarizes the findings on planetary ionospheres obtained during the last years
with space research methods-a subject which is in rather quick development.
SI-units (SI = Systeme International) are now rather generally used and are
the only legal units in quite a few countries (in the Federal Republic of Germany
since 1970). However, since the earlier volumes of the Part Geophysics should
remain comparable and since the elder literature is mainly written in c.g.s. units,
we preferred to continue writing equations in the more general system which was
first used in Vol. 49/2. Such equations are valid in all commonly used systems of
units.
This generalized way of writing equations precludes the use of the simplifica
tions typical of c.g.s. systems. In these systems the permittivity of free space,
eo, and the permeability of free space, flo, are chosen to be dimensionless (and
made unity). Now we have to introduce eo and flo as physical quantities, which
may in fact correspond to their nature. The three most generally used c.g.s.
systems are obtained by specializing the numerical values of quantities as in
dicated in the following table where Co is the velocity of light in free space.
Electrostatic Electromagnetic GAUSS
eo = 1 1/C5
flo = l/cij 1
So that the product:
c~ eo flo = 1
In SI units, too, which are basically electromagnetic, we have
c5 eo flo = 1.
Unfortunately, there is yet another difference between the systems of units. The
c.g.s. systems most frequently used in the literature are non-rationalized while SI
.2 introductory Remarks.
is rationalized (as is the special c.g.s. system introduced by H. A. LORENTZ). In
a rationalized system of units the factor 4n appears only in spherical problems,
for example, in COULOMB'S law. In non-rationalized systems the natural factor
4n has been artifically eliminated from COULOMB'S law, although it appears in
planar problems. There are thus two alternatives, regardless of the choice of the
constants eo, flo and Co. The two alternatives may be allowed for by a dimen
sionless numerical constant u, which assumes the values:
u = 1 in rationalized systems,
u = 4n in non-rationalized systems.
These rules for writing equations in a generalized way were used by RAWER and
SUCHY in Vol. 49/2 of this Encyclopedia in the contribution entitled" Radio
Observations of the Ionosphere". Detailed explanations are given in an appendix
(pp. 535 and 536 of Vol. 49/2), in which the' transformations' between two systems
of units and the relevant' invariants' (e.g. energy quantities) are also discussed.
Numerical values for the different constants are given in the following sum
mary table:
System u [10
SI = m.k.s.A. 8.854 . 10-12 1.257' 10-6
Ay-l sm-1 A-I Y sm-1
GAUSS = "symmetric" 4:n: Co = 9 . 1020
c.g.s. cm2 S-2
1
el.magn. c.g.s. 4:n: 2 = 1.11 3 . 10-21
Co S2 cm-2
el.stat. c.g.s. 4:n: = 1. 11 3 . 10-21
C~ S2 cm-2
LORENTZ = rat. GAUSS C~ = 9' 1020
cm2 S-2
It may be helpful to repeat the most important equations of electromagnetic
theory. With the definitions
electric electric magnetic magnetic current
field intensity flux density field intensity flux density density
(field strength) (displacement) (field strength) (induction)
E D H B J
there is
D=eE; B=flH; J=aE,
and in vacuum
e=eo; fl = flo, a=O.
Introductory Remarks. 3
MAXWELL'S equations connecting the different field quantities are now written:
0_ xH I7xH= _1_~ D+ u J
ot
Of' Co Veo,uo Co Veollo
o
.e;..' D= 17· D=ue
-a x E == 17 x E = - - ! B
ot
Of' Co Veollo
o
-or . B == 17 . B = o.
The two systems of units most used in geomagnetism are that of GAUSS and SI.
With regard to these two systems, we may say that in SI units C~80,uo= 1 and
u=1, so that the factors in MAXWELL'S equations can be disregarded. In the
GAUSS system the constants 80 and ,uo can be omitted, but Co remains and we
have the additional constant u=4n.
All equations are, of course, usable in any system of units because they are
written in physical quantities. The accepted definition of a physical quantity is
(numerical value) . (dimension)
such that by dividing each term through the dimension a purely numerical
equation can be obtained. We tend to write such equations, if at all, so that each
physical quantity individually is divided by its own dimension. Where other
units are to be used, the numerical change follows from an algebraic substitution, e.g.
co=3 '108ms-1; 1 (nt.mile)=1.853 km; 1 m= -10--(3 nt.mIl. e)
1.853 '
10-3
Co = 3 . 108 8 (nt.mile) S-1 = 1.619 . 105 (nt.mile) S-I.
1. 53
A few remarks on mathematical signs may be in order.
Bar or stroke may be used to express division. According to IUPAP rules,
a! .
the stroke I has priority over multiplication such that a· blc . d= It is
worth noting that this is not so in computer languages like ALGOL.
C
It is a special convention in this Encyclopedia that the natural logarithm is
denoted by log (not by In).
Differential operations in vector fields are normally expressed by means of
the symbolic vector (or ' vector operator')
o == 17
Of'
which in cartesian coordinates Xl> X2, X3 reads
(at, -/;;, at)·
IUPA P proposes two different ways of denoting tensors: use of sanserif letters
as symbols (e.g. T), or analytical expression with reference to cartesian coordinates
(e.g. I';k)'
In the latter case the summation rule is to be applied. Though symbolic
writing is preferred, we give both presentations in most cases. The unit tensor
is written as U or IJ,k' The tensorial product of two vectors ab must be distin
guished from the vector product a X b and the scalar product a . b.
Freiburg, 22 July 1976 KARL RAWER
a
b
Fig. 1 a et b. Photographic nocturne d'un paysage. Appareil Leica; objectif Boyer t/O,9;
Film Kodak Ektachrome EF, developp6 a (AI) ASA. Dli 11 la durce de l'exposition les etoiles
aparaissent comme de petits traits. a) Duree d'exposition: 10 min. b) Duree d'exposition:
5 min. Cette photographie obtenue plus t6t que la preccdente, avec un ciel encore cr6pusculaire
montre Ie passage clu satellite Echo [I.