Geomorphology: The Mechanics and Chemistry of Landscapes PDF
Preview Geomorphology: The Mechanics and Chemistry of Landscapes
Geomorphology Thistextbookprovidesamodern,quantitative,andprocess- landscape.Hedevelopsnumericalmodelsoflandscapesthat orientedapproachtoequipstudentswiththetoolstounder- honor both field observations and the first principles of stand geomorphology. Insight into the interpretation of conservation; these models in turn have served to hone his landscapes is developed from basic principles and simple fieldefforts.Inthecourseofthisacademicadventurehehas models,andbysteppingthroughtheequationsthatcapture beenfoundingeditoroftheJournalofGeophysicalResearch– the essence of the mechanics and chemistry of landscapes. EarthSurface,co-authoredthetextbookTectonicGeomorph- Boxed worked examples and real-world applications bring ology (2000, Wiley-Blackwell) with Doug Burbank, and has the subject to life for students, allowing them to apply the been honored by election as a Fellow of the American theorytotheirownexperience.Thebookcoverscutting-edge GeophysicalUnion. topics, including therevolutionary cosmogenicnuclidedating methodsandmodeling,highlightslinkstootherEarthsciences SUZANNE ANDERSON has been on the faculty at throughup-to-datesummariesofcurrentresearch,andillus- University of Colorado, Boulder, since 2004, where she trates the importance of geomorphology in understanding teaches courses on geomorphology, Earth’s Critical Zone, environmental changes. Setting up problems as a conserva- landscapes and water, and glaciers and permafrost. Her tionofmass,ice,soil,orheat,thisbookarmsstudentswith awardsincludeanOutstandingGraduateStudentInstructor tools to fully explore processes, understand landscapes, and awardatUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,aNASAGradu- participateinthisrapidlyevolvingfield. ate Student Fellowship in Global Change Research, and an NSF Earth Sciences Post-doctoral Fellowship. Suzanne’s BOB ANDERSON has taught geomorphology since research has taken her to Svalbard, Alaska, Oregon, and 1988,firstatUniversityof California,SantaCruz,andnow Nepal, and has focused on interactions between chemical at University of Colorado, Boulder. Bob has now studied weathering, hydrology, and physical erosion mechanisms. most parts of landscapes, from their glaciated tips to their ShecurrentlydirectstheBoulderCreekCriticalZoneObser- coastaltoes,withsignificantattentiontosedimenttransport vatory, an NSF environmental observatory based at the mechanics, the interaction of the geophysical and geo- University of Colorado that involves researchers from four morphicprocessesthatshapemountainranges,andtheevo- institutions and agencies. Suzanne was editor of Arctic, lutionofbedrockcanyonsandglaciatedlandscapes.Hehas Antarctic, and Alpine Research from 2004–2006, and served participated in the development of a new tool kit that asanassociateeditoroftheJournalofGeophysicalResearch– employscosmogenicradionuclidestoestablishtiminginthe EarthSurfacefrom2002–2006. Praise for this textbook “Thisbookisterrific!AndersonandAndersonhavehititjust rightonallthemainpoints:theirbookisengagingandinformal; thoroughbutnotpedantic;andshotthroughwiththesheer pleasureofunderstandinghowthingswork.It’spackedwith physicalinsight,usefulinformation,andinterestingproblems; anditissimplyapleasuretoread.Thisisamodelofwhata textbookshouldbe,andit’salsothefirstplaceI’dsendastudent orcolleaguetogetthemexcitedaboutlandscapesandhowwe studythem.” CHRIS PAOLA –ProfessorofGeologyandGeophysics, St.AnthonyFallsLaboratory,Minneapolis “Thismuchneeded,skilfullycraftedtextwillbewelcomedbythe geomorphologycommunity....IapplaudBob’sandSuzanne’s approachoffocusingon“howgeomorphicthingswork” independentlyofwhereandwhen...Fromthisperspectivethe textisaptlytitled,anditwillhavealong,healthylifespan... Thetextoffersasystematiccoverageofessentialingredients... thepresentationofvarioustopicsspansarangeofsophistication ...sothatthetextcanbeusedforanintroductorycourse, oraspartofamoreadvancedcourse.Thewritingisclear, sometimesplayful,andpossessespersonality.Theoverall reactionofmystudentsusingadraftversionhasbeenvery positive.” DAVID JON FURBISH – ProfessorandChair, DepartmentofEarthandEnvironmentalSciences, VanderbiltUniversity “Geomorphologyhasenteredanewera.Buildingondecades ofresearchonthemechanismsofEarthsurfaceprocessesand drivenbystunningnewtoolsthatprovideboththeageand elevationofthelandscape,geomorphologistsnowendeavorto trulypredicttheformoftheEarth.TheAnderson’snewbook isthefirsttopullthisinformationtogetherinaconsistent framework.Itssynthesiswillbeusedtodatethearrivalof geomorphologyasamature,coherent,predictivescience. Thebookisbothauthoritativeandaccessible,encouraging students(andinstructors)tothinkcreativelyandpreciselyabout howthelandscapeevolves.Unlikepreviousgeomorphology texts,itprovidesaconsistentapproachfordefiningandsolving modelsforthefullrangeoffeaturesfoundonthesurface oftheEarth.” PETER R. WILCOCK – ProfessorandAssociateChair, DepartmentofGeographyandEnvironmentalEngineering, JohnsHopkinsUniversity “Awonderful,widerangingreviewofthemodernscienceof geomorphology.” NIELS HOVIUS – Lecturer, DepartmentofEarthSciences, UniversityofCambridge Geomorphology THE MECHANICS AND CHEMISTRY OF LANDSCAPES Robert S. Anderson AND Suzanne P. Anderson UniversityofColorado,Boulder,USA cambridgeuniversitypress Cambridge,NewYork,Melbourne,Madrid,CapeTown,Singapore, Sa˜oPaulo,Delhi,Dubai,Tokyo CambridgeUniversityPress TheEdinburghBuilding,CambridgeCB28RU,UK PublishedintheUnitedKingdomby CambridgeUniversityPress,UK www.cambridge.org Informationonthistitle:www.cambridge.org/9780521519786 #RobertS.AndersonandSuzanneP.Anderson2010 Thispublicationisincopyright.Subjecttostatutoryexception andtotheprovisionsofrelevantcollectivelicensingagreements, noreproductionofanypartmaytakeplacewithout thewrittenpermissionofCambridgeUniversityPress. Firstpublished2010 PrintedintheUnitedKingdomattheUniversityPress,Cambridge AcatalogrecordforthispublicationisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-Publicationdata Anderson,RobertS.(RobertStewart),1952– Geomorphology:themechanicsandchemistryoflandscapes/ RobertS.AndersonandSuzanneP.Anderson. p. cm. Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. ISBN978-0-521-51978-6(pbk.) 1. Geomorphology. I. Anderson,SuzanneP. II. Title. GB401.5.A432010 551.41–dc22 2010004400 ISBN978-0-521-51978-6Paperback Additionalresourcesforthispublicationat www.cambridge.org/9780521519786 CambridgeUniversityPresshasnoresponsibilityforthepersistenceor accuracyofURLsforexternalorthird-partyinternetwebsitesreferredto inthispublication,anddoesnotguaranteethatanycontentonsuch websitesis,orwillremain,accurateorappropriate. CONTENTS Preface pagexi Themotionofplates 36 Acknowledgements xv Platespeeds 37 Large-scalemountainranges:orogens 38 1 Introduction to the study of Effectsofthickeningthecrust 39 surface processes 2 Effectsoferosionontheisostaticbalance 41 Theglobalcontext 4 Mantleresponsetimes:geomorphologyas Overviewofgeomorphology 5 aprobeofmantlerheology 43 Guidingprinciples 6 Icesheetandoceanloadingandtheresponse Conservation 6 oftheEarthsurfacetoit 44 Transportrules 7 Mantleflowanditsinfluenceontopography 49 Eventsizeandfrequency 7 Dynamictopography 49 Establishingtiming:ratesofprocesses TopographicoozingoftheTibetanPlateaumargin 50 andagesoflandscapes 8 Gooshingofmantleacrossthecontinentaledge 52 Whatdrivesgeomorphicprocesses? 8 Summary 55 ThesurfacetemperatureoftheEarth 9 Problems 57 Theclimatecontext 9 Furtherreading 59 Summary 13 Problems 14 4 Tectonic geomorphology 60 Furtherreading 14 Deformationassociatedwithindividualfaults 62 Faultscalingandfaultinteraction 65 2 Whole Earth morphology 16 Coulombstresschanges 67 Whyanoblatespheroid? 18 Determinationofoffsetsfrommodernearthquakes 69 Topographicstatistics:Earth’shypsometry 21 Paleoseismology 71 Summary 24 Strike-slipfaults 71 Problems 24 Normalfaults 72 Furtherreading 25 Megathrustfaults 75 Long-termdeformation:cumulativedisplacement 3 Large-scale topography 26 deducedfromoffsetsofgeomorphicmarkers 78 Oceanbasins:themarriageofconduction Marineplatforms 79 andisostasy 28 Riverprofiles 83 Platetectonicsoverview 36 Thespecialcaseofcorals 84 v Contents vi Flexure 86 Frostcracking 173 Generationofmountainrangesbyrepeated Otherfracturingprocesses 176 earthquakes 91 Thedeeperhistoryoffractures 177 Summary 93 Fracturesandrockstrength 181 Problems 94 Chemicalalterationofrock 183 Furtherreading 95 Chemicalequilibrium 183 Solubilityandsaturation 185 5 Atmosphericprocessesand Rivers,continentalcrust,andcommon geomorphology 96 chemicalweatheringreactions 186 TheSun 98 Chemicalkinetics 191 Climateandweatherprocesses 99 Long-termcarboncycle 200 WhyisEarththe“waterplanet”? 100 Effectsofchemicalalterationofrock 202 Thespatialpatternofradiation 104 Assessingmasslosses(orgains)inregolith 202 Verticalstructureoftheatmosphere 107 Chemicalalterationofrockstrength 205 Windandatmosphericcirculation 108 Theconversionofbedrocktomobileregolith 207 Hadleycells 108 Mobile-regolithproductionfunctions 207 Monsoons 110 Summary 208 Seabreezes 112 Problems 210 Katabaticwinds 112 Furtherreading 211 Orographiceffects 113 Summary 117 8 Glaciers and glacial geology 212 Problems 118 Glaciology:whatareglaciersandhow Furtherreading 119 dotheywork? 214 Typesofglaciers:abestiaryofice 215 6 Datingmethods,and establishing Massbalance 216 timingin the landscape 120 Icedeformation 219 Relativedatingmethods 122 Therheology 221 Absolutedatingmethods 122 Icewrinkles1:Glen’sflowlaw 223 Paleomagneticdating 123 Icewrinkles2:sliding/regelation 225 Opticallystimulatedluminescence(OSL) 123 Basalmotionbytilldeformation 232 Aminoacidracemization 124 Applicationsofglaciology 232 Oxygenisotopesandthemarineisotopestages 126 Glaciersimulations 232 Radiometricdatingmethods 128 Paleo-climateestimatesfromglacialvalleys 233 Cosmogenicradionuclides 131 Icesheetprofiles 234 Shallowgeothermometry:establishing Surgingglaciersandthestabilityoficesheets 236 long-termratesofexhumation 146 Tidewaterglaciers 237 Fissiontracks 147 Thegreaticesheets:AntarcticaandGreenland 241 Ar/Arthermochronometry 148 Glacialgeology:erosionalformsandprocesses 245 (U-Th)/Hemethod 151 Erosionalprocesses 245 Summary 157 Abrasion 246 Problems 157 Quarrying 248 Furtherreading 159 Large-scaleerosionalforms 251 TheU-shapedvalley 251 7 Weathering 160 Cirques,steps,andoverdeepenings: Weatheringaspartoferosion 162 thelongvalleyprofile 252 Theweatheredprofile 162 Fjords 255 TheCriticalZone 164 Depositionalforms 257 Denudation 165 Moraines 257 Massloss 165 Eskers 260 Processesthatfracturerock 166 Erosionrates 263 Thermalstressandstrain 168 Summary 265 Contents vii Problems 267 Soilmoistureanditsdistributionwithdepth 353 Furtherreading 268 Infiltration 355 Groundwater 358 9 Periglacialprocesses and forms 270 TheDupuitcase 360 Definitionanddistributionofpermafrost 272 Groundwaterrulesofthumb 363 Thermalstructure 272 Runoffmechanisms 363 Baseofthepermafrost 273 Infiltrationcapacity 365 Activelayerdepth 275 Rolesofvegetation 365 Latentheat 277 Evapotranspiration 365 Departuresfromthesteady-stategeotherm 278 Waterstorageinthesoil 366 Geomorphologyofperiglacialregions 280 Overlandflowgeneration 366 Segregationiceandfrostheave 280 Overlandflowofwateranditsgeomorphic Upfreezingofstones 283 consequences 367 Patternedground 285 Theproblemofdrainagedensity 370 Icewedgepolygons 286 Sappingandamphitheater-headedcanyons 373 Solifluctionlobes 290 Summaryofchannelheadissues 374 Pingos 290 Hydrologyofaheadwatercatchment: Thawlakes 293 theCoosBayexperiment 374 ThepresentrapidlychangingArctic 296 Summary 376 Thermokarst 296 Problems 377 Coastalerosion 298 Furtherreading 378 Permafrostandcarbon 299 Summary 300 12 Rivers 380 Problems 301 Theoryandmeasurementofturbulentflows Furtherreading 303 inopenchannels 382 Theverticallyaveragedmeanvelocity 388 10 Hillslopes 304 Otherequationsforthemeanvelocity 389 Convexityofhilltops 307 Measurementofchannelvelocityanddischarge 391 Massbalance 308 Summaryoftheoryandmeasurement Diffusiveprocesses 309 ofchannelflow 394 Hillslopeprocesses 313 Hydraulicgeometry 395 Rainsplash 313 Floodsandfloodplainsedimentation 396 Creep 320 Thefloodplain 399 Solifluction:frostcreepandgelifluction 320 Channelplanviews 399 Biogenicprocessexamples 325 Thebraidedcase 400 Pacinghillslopes 328 Themeanderingcase 401 Landslides 330 Channelprofiles 405 Theforcebalanceatfailure 331 Characterofthebed 407 Aprimeronthebehaviorofsaturated Riverslopes 408 granularmaterials 334 Theinfluenceofbaselevel 409 Whatoversteepenstheslopes? 336 TheAmazon 411 Theaftermath 337 Summary 414 Debrisflows 340 Appendix:TheNavier–Stokesequation Hillslopemodels 344 andtheoriginoftheReynoldsandFroude Summary 345 numbers 414 Problems 346 Theleft-handside 415 Furtherreading 347 Theright-handside 415 Non-dimensionalizationoftheNavier–Stokes 11 Water in the landscape 348 equation 418 Drainagebasins 350 Problems 419 Waterbalance 352 Furtherreading 421 Contents viii 13 Bedrock channels 422 Summary 499 Measurementtechniques 424 Problems 500 Straths 425 Furtherreading 501 Lavaflows 425 Caves 425 16 Coastal geomorphology 502 Cosmogenicradionuclidesonthechannel Therelativemovementoflandandsea 504 floor 426 ThePleistocenerecord 504 Short-termmonitoring 426 SealevelchangeintheHolocene 505 Erosionprocesses 428 Thelastcenturyofsealevelchange Thestreampowerapproach 428 anditscauses 506 Abrasion 429 Rockuplift 507 Quarrying 431 Waves 508 Hydraulicwedging 433 Originofwaves 508 Dissolution 433 Transformationofwaves 510 Knickpointmigration 434 Hurricanestormsurge 511 Summaryofprocesses 435 Physicsofsandmovementinthelittoral Streamprofilesinbedrockchannels 435 system 512 Thechannelwidthproblem 445 Sandycoasts 513 Empiricalconstraints 446 Capesandspits 513 Theory 446 Beachcusps 514 Summary 449 Deltas 515 Appendix:Futureworkandresearchneeds 449 Rockycoasts 520 Problems 450 Coastallittoralsandbudget 521 Furtherreading 451 Pocketbeachesandheadlands 523 Icycoasts 524 14 Sedimenttransport mechanics 452 Thecontinentalshelf 526 Thepiecesoftheproblem 454 Summary 528 Grainentrainment 455 Problems 530 Recentprogressinthefluvialrealm 459 Furtherreading 531 Modesoftransport 461 Thesaltationtrajectory 462 17 The geomorphology of big floods 532 Thegranularsplash 463 Whyshouldwestudylargefloods? 534 Massflux:transport“laws” 464 Ahistoricalbackdrop 534 Suspendedsedimenttransport 468 Arecipefortrulybigfloods:abunch Thesuspensiontrajectory 468 ofwater,abreachofthedam 535 Thecontinuumapproach 469 Paleofloodanalysis 537 Summary 473 Slackwaterandseparationeddydeposits 538 Problems 474 Estimatesofflowcompetence 538 Furtherreading 475 Paleodischargeestimates 538 TheBonnevilleflood 538 15 Eolian forms and deposits 476 Glacialfloods:Jo¨kulhlaups 540 Bedforms 478 TheLakeMissoulafloodsandthechanneled Classificationofdunetypes 481 scablands 541 Modelsofdunesandtheirstratigraphy 484 LakesAgassizandOjibway 546 Eolianripples 486 TheEnglishChannelreinterpreted 549 Summaryofbedforms 489 Noah’sflood 549 Loess 489 Floodsfromthefailureoflandslidedams 553 Erosionbywindblownparticles 493 Summary 554 Windblownsnow 497 Problems 554 EolianevidenceonMars 498 Furtherreading 555
Description:The list of books you might like
