Geology of India

259 Pages·1944·17.166 MB·English

by  D.N. Wadia

GEOLOGY OF INDIA
BY
D. N. WADIA,
M.A., B.Sc., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S.B.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDJ/.
WITH ILL USTRA TIONS
MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED
ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON
1944
COPYRIGHT To A. AND F.
First Edition 1919 IN HEAVEN,
Revised 1926.
Second Edition 1939.
THESE PAGES ARE INSCRIBED
Reprinted 1944.
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED IN GSEAT BRITAIN
PREFACE
As a lecturer in Geology to students preparing for the Punjab Uni­
versity Examinations I have constantly experienced great difficulty
in the teaching of the Geology of India, because of the absence of any
adequate modern book on the subject. The only work that exists is
the one published by the Geological Survey of India in 1887, by H. B.
Medlicott and W. T. Blanford, revised and largely rewritten by R. D.
Oldham in 1893—a quarter of a century ago. Although an excellent
official record of the progress of the Survey up to that time, this publi­
cation has naturally become largely out of date (now also out of print)
and is, besides, in its voluminous size and method of treatment, not
altogether suitable as a manual for students preparing for the Uni­
versity Examinations. Students, as well as all other inquirers, have,
therefore, been forced to search for and collect information, piece­
meal, from the multitudinous Records and Memoirs of the Geological
Survey of India. These, however, are too numerous for the diligence
of the average student—often, also, they are inaccessible to him—and
thus much valuable scientific information contained in these admir­
able publications was, for the most part, unassimilated by the student
class and remained locked up in the shelves of a few Libraries in the
country. It would not be too much to say that this lack of a handy
volume is in the main responsible for the almost total neglect of the
Geology of India as a subject of study in the colleges of India and as
one of independent scientific inquiry.
The object of the present volume is to remedy this deficiency by
providing a manual in the form of a modern text-book, which sum­
marises all the main facts of the subject within a moderate compass.
It is principally a compilation, for the use of the students of Indian
Geology, of all that has been published on the subject, especially in­
corporating the later researches and conclusions of the Geological
Survey of India since Oldham’s excellent edition of 1893.
In a subject of such proportions as the Geology of India, and one
round which such voluminous literature exists, and is yearly growing,
it is not possible, in a compendium of this nature, to aim at perfection
of detail. Nor is it easy, again, to do justice to the devoted labours of
viii PKEFACE
the small body of original workers who, since the ’50’s of the last
century, have made Indian Geology what it is to-day. By giving,
however, in bold outlines, the main results achieved up to date and by
strictly adhering to a text-book method of treatment, I have striven
to fulfil the somewhat restricted object at which I have aimed.
POSTSCRIPT
In the publication of this book I have received valuable help from
various quarters. My most sincere thanks are due to Sir T. H. The writing of the first edition of this book was completed in 1916,
Holland, F.R.S., D.Sc., for his warm sympathy and encouragement. since when there has bt;en no opportunity of revising it on an ade­
To Dr. E. H. Pascoe, D.Sc.^ Director of the Geological Survey of quate scale, or or incorporating in it the results of the activities of the
India, I offer my grateful acknowledgments for the loan of blocks and Geological Survey of India in tiie last twenty years as well as of the
plates from negatives for the illustrations in the book, and for per­ steadily increasing volume of extra-departmental work published in
mission to publish this volume. My indebtedness to Mr. C. S. various branches of the Geology of India.
Middlemiss, C.I.E., F.R.S., retired Superintendent of the Geological The present edition, though not considerably enlarged in bulk, is
Survey of India, the doyen of Indian Geologists, I can never suf­ thoroughly revised and brought up to date by incorporating new
ficiently acknowledge. His guidance and advice in all matters con­ research. A geological map of India, on the scale of 96 miles = 1 inch,
nected with illustrations, correction of manuscript and text, checking is added, embodying all the recently surveyed regions in the Hima­
of proofs, etc., have been of inestimable value. Indeed, but for his layas, Rajputana, Assam and other parts of India.
help several imperfections and inaccuracies would have crept into the It is my pleasant duty to tender my grateful acknowledgments for
book. I have also to offer my warm thanks to Dr. G. E. Pilgrim, valuable help received from various quarters—to Dr. A. M. Heron,
D.Sc., for his helpful criticisms and valuable suggestions in revising D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Director, Geological Survey of India, for permission
the Tertiary Systems. to publish the revised book and for his helpful criticisms and sug­
In the end, I tender my grateful acknowledgments to Messrs. gestions ; to Professor B. Sahni, Sc.D., F.R.S., for the revision of the
Macmillan for their uniform courtesy. Chapters dealing with the Gondwana System and for a critical ex­
D. N. WADIA. amination of the lists of fossil floras of India ; and to Mr. Percy
Jammu, Evans for many important suggestions regarding several sections of
December, 1916,
the book and for assistance in the revision and correction of proofs.
To many of my colleagues of the Geological Survey of India I am
indebted for much ungrudging assistance and for their helpful
attitude throughout in the production of this edition.
D. N. WADIA.
Calcutta,
12f/t July, 1937.
ix
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
Physical Features .................................................
Geological divisions of India ; their characters and peculiarities ; types
of the earth’s crust exemplified by these divisions. Physical characters of
the plains of India. Rajputana a debatable area. Mountains of India ;
the Himalayan mountains ; physical features of the Himalayas ; meteor­
ological influence of the Himalayas. Limits of the Himalayas. The Byn-
taxial bends at the N.W. and S.E. Classification of the Himalayan ranges,
(1) Geographical, (2) Geological. Other ranges of extra-Peninsular India.
Mountain ranges of the Peninsula ; Vind'.iyan mountains ; the Satpura
range ; the Western Ghats ; the Eastern Ghats. Glaciers : glaciers of the
Himalayas ; their size ; limit of Himalayan glaciers ; peculiarities of
Himalayan glaciers ; records of past glaciation in the Himalayas. The
drainage system : the easterly drainage of the Peninsula ; the Himalayan
systeni of drainage not a consequent drainage ; the Himalayan watershed ;
the transverse gorges of~the Himalayas ; river-capture or “ piracy ” ;
the hanging valleys of Sikkim. Lakes ; the lakes of Tibet, Kashmir and
Kumaon ; salinity of the Tibetan lakes ; their desiccation ; the Sambhar
lake ; the Lonar lake. The Coasts of India ; submerged mountain-chain
and valleys of the Arabian Sea. Volcanoes: Barren Island ; Narcondam ;
Popa; Koh-i-Sultan. Mud-volcanoes. Earthquakes: the earthquake
zone of India ; the Assam earthquake ; the Kangra earthquake ; Bihar
earthquake ; Quetta earthquake. Local alterations of level; recent
elevation of the Peninsular tableland ; other local alterations; sub­
merged forest of Bombay; alterations of level in Cutcli; the Himalayas
yet in a state of tension. Isostasy. Denudation ; the monsoonic alter­
nations ; the lateritic regolith; general character of denudation in India
sub-tropical, desert-erosion in Rajputana. Peculiarity of river-erosion
in India : the river-floods. Late changes in the drainage of Northern
India; the Siwalik river, its dismemberment into the Indus and Ganges;
reversal of the north-westerly flow of the Ganges. References.
CHAPTER II
Stratigraphy of India—Introductory -
Difficulty of correlation of the Indian formations to those of the world ;
principles involved. The different “ facies ” of the Indian formations.
Provincial faunas. Radio-active minerals as an aid to stratigraphy.
The chief geological provinces of India : the Salt-Range ; tho N.W.
Himalayas ; the Central Himalayas ; Sind ; Rajputana ; Burma and
Baluchistan ; the Coastal tracts. Method of study of the geology of India.
Table of the geological formations of India. References.
CHAPTER III
The Archaean System -
General. Distribution of the Archaean of India ; petrology of the Arch­
aean system ; the chief petrological types : gneisses ; granites ; syenites ;
xii CONTENTS CONTENTS xiii
PAGE
Charnockite, Khondalite, Gondite, Kodurite, calc-gneisses and calciphyres, Chitral. (iv) Burma—the Northern Shan States ; Ordovician ; Silurian
etc. Classification of the Archaean system. Bengal gneiss ; types of Ben­ —Namshim series, Zebingyi series ; Silurian fauna of Burma ; Devonian;
gal gneiss. Bundelkhand gneiss. The Charnockite series ; petrological the Devonian fauna ; the Wetwin slates. Carboniferous of Burma ; the
characters of the Charnockite series ; their microscopic characters. Arch­ Plateau limestone ; Fusulina limestone. Table of the Palaeozoic forma­
tions of Burma. Physical changes at the end of the Dravidian era. Re­
aean of the Himalayas. References.
ferences.
CHAPTER IV CHAPTER IX
The Dharwar System - - - - - - - - The Gondwana System - - 123
General. Outcrops of the Dharwar rocks ; the lithology of the Dharwars ; General. The ancient Gondwanaland ; Lemuria ; the Gondwana system
plutonic intrusions in the Dharwars ; crystalline limestones originating by of India ; the geotectonic relations of the Gondwana rocks ; their fluvia-
the metasomatism of the gneisses. Distribution of the Dharwar system. tile nature ; evidences of changes of climate; ’organic remains in the
Type-area Dharwar ; Rajputana : the Aravalli mountains ; the Aravalli Gondwana rocks ; distribution of the Gondwana rocks ; classification of
scries ; the Raialo series; the Shillong series ; the Dharwar rocks of the system. The Lower Gondwana: Talchir series; Talchir fossils ; the
the Central Provinces; the manganiferous deposits of the Dharwar Damuda series ; igneous rocks of the Damuda coal-measures ; effects of
system—the Gondite and the Kodurite series : Bihar and Orissa—the contact-metamorphism; the Damuda flora; Damuda series of other areas.
Iron-ore series. Manganese ores of the Dharwar system. The Dharwar Homotaxis of the Damuda and Talchir series. Economics. Classification.
system of the Himalayas. The Vaikrita series; Salkhala series; Jutogh
series and Daling series. Homotaxis of the Dharwar system. The
Archaean-Dharwar controversy. Economics. References. CHAPTER X
CHAPTER V The Gondwana System {Continued) - - - - - 137
The Middle Gondwanas: rocks; the Panchet series; the Pachmarhi
The Cuddapah Sy s t e m .................................................................... or Mahadev series ; Maleri series; Parsora series; Triassic age of the
General. The Cuddapah system ; lithology of the Cuddapahs ; absence Middle Gondwanas. The Upper Gondwanas : distribution ; lithology ;
of fossils in the Cuddapahs ; classification of the system. Distribution. the Rajmahal series ; the Rajmahal flora; Satpura and Central Pro­
The Lower Cuddapah ; the Delhi system ; Bijawar series ; the Cheyair vinces ; Jabalpur stage; Godavari area ; Kota stage ; Gondwanas of
and Gwalior series. The Upper Cuddapahs; the Nallamalai, Kaladgi, the East Coast; Rajahmundri, Ongole and Madras outcrops; the
Kistna, etc., series. Economics. Stratigraphic position of the Cuddapahs. Upper Gondwanas of Cutch. Umia series. Economics. References.
References.
CHAPTER VI CHAPTER XI
The Vindhyan System - - - - - - - Upper Carboniferous and Permian Systems - 149
Extent and thickness; rocks; structural features. Life during the The commencement of the Aryan era; the Himalayan geosyncline;
Vindhyan period. Classification. Distribution of the Low'er Vindhyan ; the nature of geosynclines. Upper Carboniferous and Permian of India.
Semri series ; the Kurnool series, Malani series, etc. Meaning of “ Lower ” (i) Upper Carboniferous and Permian of the Salt-Range. Boulder-bed ;
and “Upper” Vindhyan. The distribution of the Upper Vindhyan. Speckled sandstone; Productus limestone; Productus fauna. The
Vindhyan sandstones. Economics of the system. The Himalayan Anthracolithic systems, (ii) Upper Carboniferous and Permian of the
Vindhyans. The relation of the Himalayan unfossiliferous systems to the Himalayas. The Permo-Carboniferous of Spiti. Productus shales.
Peninsular Puranas. Homotaxis of the Vindhyan system. References. Kashmir; Hazara; Simla; Burma. Marine beds of Umaria. References.
CHAPTER VII
CHAPTER XII
The Cambrian Sy s t e m ....................................................................
The Triassic System - - 166
The Cambrian of India, (i) The Salt-Range. The principal geological
features of the range. The Cambrian of the Salt-Range ; the purple sand­ General. The principles of classification of the geological record ; the view
stone , the Neobolus beds; magnesian sandstone. Salt-pseudomorph of Professors Chamberlin and Salisbury, (i) The Trias of Spiti. The zonal
shales, (ii) The Spiti area—the Spiti geosyncline. The Cambrian of classification of the system ; Triassic fauna, (ii) Hazara, (iii) The Trias
Spiti; Haimanta system ; Cambrian fossils. Autoclastic conglomerates. of the Salt-Range—the Ceratite beds, (iv) Baluchistan, (v) Burma;
The Cambrian of Kashmir. References. Napeng series, (vi) Kashmir. References.
CHAPTER VIII CHAPTER XIII
The Silurian, Devonian and Lower Carboniferous The Jurassic System - - - 177
Sy s t e m s .......................................................................................... Instances of Jurassic development in India. Life during the Jurassio
General, (i) The Spiti area ; the Silurian ; the Devonian Mu th series ; the P®ri°d. (i) Jura of the Central Himalayas ; the Kioto limestone ; Spiti
Carboniferous—Lipak and Po series ; the Upper Carboniferous uncon­ shales ; the fauna of the Spiti shales. Mt. Everest region. The Tal series
formity. Table of Palaeozoic systems in Spiti. (ii) Kashmir area, (iii) of the Outer Himalayas, (ii) Juras of Baluchistan, (iii) Hazara ; the
xiv CONTENTS CONTENTS xv
FACE
Spiti shales of Hazara, (iv) Burma—Namyau beds, (v) Juras of the Salt- and Baluchistan, (ii) Salt-Range. (iii) Kohat. (iv) Potwar. (v) Hazara.
Range. Marine transgressions during the Jurassic period ; the nature of (vi) Kashmir, (vii) The Outer Himalayas; Subathu series, (viii) Assam ;
marine transgressions, (vi) The Jurassics of Cutch—Patcham, Chari, economic utility of the Assam Eoccno rocks, (ix) Burma; Eocene
Katrol and Umia series, (vii) Rajputana—Jaisalmer limestone. Refer­ mammals. References.
ences.
CHAPTER XIV
CHAPTER XIX
The Cretaceous Sy s t e m ....................................................................192 The Oligocene and Lower Miocene Systems - 252
Varied facies of the Cretaceous of India, the geography of India during
Oligocene ; restricted occurrence, (i) Baluchistan, (ii) Sind; Nari series.
the Cretaceous period, (i) Cretaceous of Spiti; Giumal sandstone ;
(iii) Assam, (iv) Burma ; Pegu series : petroleum, origin, mode of occur­
Chikkim scries; Flysch. (ii) Chitral. Plutonic and volcanic action
rence, gas, migration ; petroleum areas in India. Lower Miocene, (i)
during the Cretaceous. Etfotic blocks of Johar. (iii) Cretaceous Volcanic
Sind; GaJ series; Bugti beds. (ii) Salt-Range, Potwar, Jammu;
series of Kashmir, (iv) Hazara, (v) Cretaceous of Sind and Baluchistan;
Murree series, (iii) Outer Himalayas, (iv) Assam; Surma series, (v)
Hippurite limestone; Parh limestone ; Pab sandstone. Cardita beau-
Burma; Upper Pegu series. Igneous action. Change in conditions. *
monti beds, (vi) Salt-Range. (vii) Assam, (viii) Burma. References.
References.
CHAPTER XV
CHAPTER XX
The Cretaceous System (Continued)—Peninsula - - 202
The Siwalik System—Middle Miocene to Lower Pleis- 263
(i) Upper Cretaceous of the Coromandel coast; geological interest of the
S.E. Cretaceous; the Utatur stage; Trichinopoly stage; Ariyalur tocene ............................................................................................
stage ; Niniyur stage ; Fauna of the S.E. Cretaceous ; Utatur, Trichino­ General. The nature of the Siwalik deposits. Geotectonic relations of
poly, and Ariyalur faunas, (ii) The Narbada valley Cretaceous ; Bagh the Siwaliks. Tho “ Main Boundary ” Fault. The real nature of the
beds; conclusions from the fauna of the Bagh beds, (iii) Tho Lameta “ Main Boundary ” Fault; Middlemiss’s views. The Palaeontological
series or Infra-trappean beds ; metasomatic limestones. Age of the interest of the Siwalik system. Evolution of the Siwalik fauna; migra­
Lameta series. Cretaceous Dinosaurs of India. References. tions into India. Lithology; mode of formation of the Siwaliks in the
Gangetic trough. Classification. Siwalik fauna; fossil anthropoid apes.
CHAPTER XVI Age of Siwalik system. Parallel series of deposits. References.
Deccan Trap - ..............................................- 211
CHAPTER XXI
The great volcanic formation of India. Area of the plateau basalts ;
’ their thickness ; tho horizontality of the lava sheets ; petrology ; absence The Pleistocene System—Glacial Age in India - - 276
of magmatic differentiation; microscopic characters of the Deccan
basalts. Stratigraphy of the Deccan Trap. Inter-trappcan beds ; a The Pleistocene or Glacial Age of Europe and America. A modified Pleis­
type-section. The mode of eruption of the Deccan Traps—fissure-eruption. tocene Glacial Age in India. The nature of the evidence for an Ice Age in
Fissure dykes in the Traps. Age of the Deccan Traps. Economics. Re­ India ; Dr. Blanford’s views. Ice Age in tho Himalayas ; Physical re­
ferences. cords. The extinction of tho Siwalik mammals—one further evidence.
Interglacial periods. References.
CHAPTER XVII
The Tertiary Systems—Introductory - 223
CHAPTER XXII
General. Physical changes at the commencement of the Tertiary era.
Tho elevation of the Himalayas ; three phases of upheaval of the Him­ The Pleistocene System (Continued)—The Indo-Gangetic
alayas. Distribution of the Tertiary systems in India : Peninsula ; extra- Al l u v iu m ..........................................................................................282
Peninsula. Dual facies of Tertiary deposits. Geography of India during
early Tertiary, (i) Tertiaries of Surat and Broach, (ii) Kathiawar. Dwarka The plains of India. Nature of the Indo-Gangetic depression. Extent and
beds, Perim Island Tertiary, (iii) Tertiaries of Cutch. (iv) Rajputana. thickness of the alluvial deposits. Changes in Rivers. Lithology.
(v) The Coromandel coast—Cuddalore series, (vi) Travancore. Tertiary Classification; Bhangar; Khadar. The Ganges delta, the Indus delta.
systems of the extra-Peninsular India, (i) Sind. Table of formations. Economics. The Rajputana desert; composition of tho desert sand ;
(ii) Salt-Range. Table of formations, (iii) Himalayas—Kashmir Him­ the origin of the Rajputana desert. The Rann of Cutch. References.
alayas and Punjab and Kumaon Himalayas. Tertiaries of Inner
Himalayas, (iv) Assam, (v) Burma. The Tertiary gulf of Burma.
CHAPTER XXIII
References.
CHAPTER XVIII The Pleistocene System (Continued)—Laterite - - 294
The Eocene Sy st e m .........................................................- 240 Laterite a regolith peculiar to India. Composition of laterite ; its distribu­
tion. High-level laterite and low-level laterite. Theories of the origin of
Ranikot series; Fossils of the Ranikot series. Laki series. Kirthar Jatente, recent views; secondary changes in laterite; resilicification.
series ; Nummulitic limestone ; Fossils of the Kirthar series, (i) Sind xne age of laterite. Economics. References.
xvi CONTENTS CONTENTS xvii
CHAPTER XXIV ' CHAPTER XXVII (APPENDIX)
PAOE
PAGE
Pleistocene and Recent (Continued) - 29-9 -- Geology of Kashmir - - - - - - - - 382
Examples of Pleistocene and Recent deposits. Ossiferous alluvium of the General. Physical features of Kashmir ; the chief orographic features.
Upper Sutlej ; of the Tapti and Narbada. The Karewas of Kashmir. The Outer ranges; their simple geological structure; the “ duns ”. The
Porbander stone. Sand-dunes; Teris. Loess deposits. The Potwar Middle ranges; the Panjal range; “ orthoclinal ” structure of the
fiuvio-glacial deposits. Cave-deposits. Regur or black cotton-soil; the Middle ranges. The Inner ranges ; physical aspects of the zone of highest
origin of Regur. The “ Daman ” slopes. The Human epoch. References. elevation. The valleys; transverse gorges; their configuration. The
lakes. Glaciers ; transverse and longitudinal types of glaciers. Records
of tho Pleistocene Ice Age. The Stratigraphy of Kashmir. Introduc­
tion. Comparative stratigraphy of Simla and Hazara areas. Table .
CHAPTER XXV of the geological formations. The Archaean and pre-Cambrian systems ;
petrology; distribution. Salkhala series. The Palaeozoic group. Out­
Physiography 308 crops. The Cambrian. The Ordovician. Distribution; composition.
Principles of physiography illustrated by the Indian region. Mountains : The Silurian. Distribution; rocks, fossils. The Devonian. Occur­
tho structure of the Himalayas ; recent ideas ; the tectonic zones ; cause rence ; petrology. The Lower Carboniferous—Syringothyris limestone
of the syntaxial bends of the Himalayas ; the mountains of the Peninsula. series. Distribution; Lower Carboniferous fossils. The Middle Car­
Plateaus and plains : plateau of volcanic accumulation ; plateau of boniferous—Fenestella shales ; passage beds ; distribution ; lithology;
erosion. Valleys : the valley of Kashmir a tectonic valley ; erosion-val- fauna ; age of the Fenestella series. The mid-Palaeozoic unconformity of
leys ; valleys of the Himalayas ; the transverse gorges ; configuration of N.W. Kashmir and Hazara ; the Tanawal series. The Upper Carboniferous
the Himalayan valleys ; valleys of the Peninsula. Basins or lakes : func­ ■—Panjal Volcanic series. Middle Carboniferous earth-movements.
tions of lakes; types of lakes; Indian examples. The Coast-lines of Physical history at the end of tho Dravidian era. Panjal volcanic series ;
India. References. distribution ; nature of the Panjal agglomerate slates ; Panjal lavas ;
petrology ; age and extension of the Panjal lavas. Inter-trappean lime­
stones. Lower Gondwana beds—Gangamopteris beds ; distribution ;
CHAPTER XXVI
lithology; the Golabgarh section; fossils; age. The Permian; Zewan
Economic Geology 327 series ; fossils ; ago of the Zewan series. Permo-Carboniferous inliers
in the Sub-Himalayas of Jammu. Krol Series. Tho Triassic; Trias
General. Water ; wells, springs, artesian wells; Thermal and Mineral of Kashmir, wide distribution ; lithology ; Lower Trias ; Middle Trias ;
Springs. Clay ; china-clay, terra-cotta, fire-clay, fuller’s earth. Sands ; Upper Trias. Relations of the Kashmir and Spiti provinces during the
glass-sand. Lime ; cements ; mortar ; composition of cements ; produc­ UpporTrias. The Jurassic ; the Jurassic of Ladakh; Jurassic of Banihal.
tion. Building-stones ; granites; limestones; marbles, serpentine; Tho Cretaceous; Chikkim series of Rupshu-Zanskar. Cretaceous volcanics
sandstones, Vindhyan sandstones, Gondwana sandstones ; laterite, slates, of Astor, Burzil and Dras. The Tertiary ; Introductory ; Indus Valley
traps. Coal; production in India ; Gondwana coal; Tertiary coal. Peat. Tertiaries; Tertiaries of the Jammu hills. The Subathu series of Jammu
Petroleum; Burma, Assam, N.W. India; natural gas. Metals and and the Pir Panjal. The Murree series. The Siwalik system ; Lower,
ores ; views of Sir T. H. Holland. Gold : its occurrence ; production of Middle and Upper Siwaliks. Pleistocene and Recent; Karewas. Relation
vein-gold; alluvial gold. Copper; the copper-ores of Sikkim. Iron ; of Karewas to Glacial and Inter-Glacial periods. Later deposits. Geotec-
its occurrence on a vast scale ; economic value ; production ; its distri­ tonic Features of the N.W. Himalayas.
bution. Manganese; distribution of manganese in the geological for­
mations of India ; production ; uses. Aluminium ; bauxite in laterite ;
economic value of Indian bauxite ; uses. Lead ; lead-ores of Bawdwin ; Index - - - - - - - - - - 445
production. Silver and zinc. Tin ; the tin-ore of Mergui and Tavoy.
Wolfram; wolfram of Tavoy ; uses of tungsten. Chromium; occurrence;
uses. Antimony ; arsenic ; cobalt and nickel; zinc. Precious and semi­
precious stones. Diamonds ; Panna and Golconda diamonds. Rubies and
sapphires ; Burma rubies ; sapphires of Kashmir. Spinel. Jadeite ;
occurrence; formation. Beryl; emeralds and aquamarines. Chryso-
beryl. Garnets. Zircon. Tourmalines. Other gem-stones of India.
Agate3, rock-crystal, amethyst. Amber. Economic mineral products.
Salt; sources of Indian salt; Rock-salt Mines ; other salts. Saltpetre or
nitre. Mode of occurrence of nitre ; its production ; uses. Alum. Borax.
Reh salts ; the origin of reh efflorescence. Mica ; uses of mica ; mica-
deposits of Nellore and Hazaribagh. Corundum ; occurrence ; distribu­
tion ; uses: other abrasives; millstones, grindstones. Kyanite and
Sillimanite. Beryl. Monazite; its occurrence; uses. Graphite; its
occurrence ; uses. Steatite ; mode of origin of steatite. Gypsum. Mag­
nesite ; occurrence of magnesite. Asbestos. Barytes. Fluor-spar.
Phosphatic deposits. Mineral paints. Uranium minerals ; pitchblende
of Gaya. Titanium. Vanadium. Rare minerals. Pyrite and sulphur;
uses cf sulphur. Soils, soil-formation ; the soils of India.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
(1) PLATES
PAGE
PLATE I. Alukthang Glacier - facing page 14
n. Snout of Sona Glacier from Sona - 16
III. Mud Volcano—one of the largest—Minbu, Burma 28
IV. Bellary Granite, Gneiss Country, Hampi 64
V. Banded Porphyritic Gneiss (Younger Archaean), Nakta Nala,
Chhindwara District . . . . . . . „ 66
VI. “ Marble Rocks ” (Dolomite Marble), Jabalpur . . . „ 76
VII. Upper Rewah Sandstone, Rahutgarh, Sangor District - „ 94
VIII. Overfolding of the Palacozoic Rocks, Upper Lidar Valley,
Central H im alayas......................................................., , 114
IX. Reversed Fault in Carboniferous Rocks, Lebung Pass, Central
Himalayas..........................................................................„ 116
X. Barrier of Coal across Kararia Nala . . . . . „ 132
XI. Contorted Carboniferous Limestone . . . . . „ 160
XII. Folded Trias Beds, Dhauli Ganga Valley,C entral Himalayas „ 166
XIII. Geological Map of Lidar Valley. Silurian-Trias Sequence in
K ashm ir..........................................................................At end of book
XIV. Plan of Vihi District, Kashmir
XV. Geological Map of the Pir Panjal
XVI. Sketch Map of the Himalayan Geosyncline and its Relation to
adjacent Mountain-systems of Central Asia ,, „
XVII. Tectonic Sketch Map of the Garhwal Himalayas „ „
XVIII. Geological Sketch Map of the Syntaxial Bend of the North-
West Himalayas
XIX. Geological Map of Hazara -
XX. Geological Map of India
(2) IN THE TEXT
FIG.
1. Diagrammatic Section through the Himalayas to show their relations to
the Tibetan Plateau and the Plains of In d ia .....................................5
2. Barren Island Volcano in the Bay of Bengal . . . . . . 26
3. Diagram showing Contortion in the Archaean Gneiss of Bangalore 56
4. Section across the Aravalli Range to the Vindhyan Plateau showing the
peneplaned synclinorium of the most ancient mountain range of India 75
5. Section across the Singhbhum Anticlinorium, Chota Nagpur . . . 79
■ iagram showing the Relation of Dharwar Schists with the Gneisses - 83
g ®ecti°n illustrating the Relation of Cuddapah and Kurnool Rocks - 87
action showing Relation between Gwalior Series and Rocks of the Vindh­
yan System 98
XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG. paqr
9. Section illustrating the General Structure of the Salt-Range (Block-faults).
Section over Chambal Hill (E a st)....................................................... 104
10. Section across tho Dandot scarp from Khewra to Gandhala, Salt-Range - 105
11. Section along the Parahio River, S p iti....................................................... 113
12. Section of Palaeozoic Systems of N. Shan States (Burma), Section across
the Nam-tu Valley at L i l u ................................................................. 117
13. Sketch Map of typical Gondwana Outcrop . . . . . . 127
14. Tectonic Relations of the Gondwana Rocks. . . . . . . 128 CHAPTER I
15. Sketch Map of the Gondwana Rocks of the Satpura Area . . . 137
16. Generalised Section through the Gondwana Basin of tho Satpura Region - 139 PHYSICAL FEATURES
17. Section from Dhodha Wahan across the western part of Mt. Sakcsar, Salt-
Range ..................................................................................................... 150 Before commcncing the study of the stratigraphical, i.e. historical,
18. Section across tho Salt-Range, western part, showing the Upper Palaeo­
zoic and Mesozoic sy stem s................................................................. 152 geology of India, it is necessary to acquire some knowledge of the
19. Section of the Carbon-Trias Sequence in the Tibetan Zone of the Himalayas principal physical features. The student should make himself
(S p iti)..................................................................................................... 160 familiar with the main aspects of its geography, the broad facts
20. Palaeozoic Rocks of the N. Shan States . . . . . . . 164
regarding its external relief or contours, its mountain-systems,
21. Section of the Trias of S p iti.......................................................................... 170
22. Diagrammatic Section of Mt. Sirban, Abbottabad, Hazara . . . 172 plateaus and plains, its drainage-courses, its glaciers, volcanoes, etc.
23. Continuation of preceding Section further South-East to the Taumi Peak - 173 This study, with the help of physical or geographical maps, is indis­
24. Section through the Bakh Ravine from Musa Khel to Nammal 174 pensable. Such a foundation-knowledge of the physical facts of the
25. Section of the Jurassic and Cretaceous Rocks of Hundes . . . . 178 country will not only be of much interest in itself, but the student will
26. Sketch Section in the Chichali Pass................................................................. 185
soon find that the physiography of India is in many respects corre­
27. View of Deccan Trap Country.......................................................................... 212
28. Section of Nummulitic Limestone Cliffs; Salt Range . . . . 243 lated to, and is, indeed, an expression of, its geological structure and
29. Section across the Potwar Geosyncline........................................................ 257 history.
30. Diagrams to illustrate the Formation of Reversed Faults in the Siwalik Geological divisions of India—The most salient fact with regard to
Zone of the Outer Himalayas................................................................. 264
both the physical geography and geology of the Indian region is that
31. Section to illustrate the Relations of the Outer Himalayas to the Older
Rocks of the Mid-Himalayas (Kumaon Himalayas) . . . . 266 it is composed of three distinct units or earth-features, which are as
32. Section across the Sub-Himalayan Zone east of the Ganges River 267 unlike in their physical as in their geological characters. The first
33. Diagrammatic section across the Indo-Gangetic Synclinorium - 284 two of these three divisions of India have a fundamental basis, and
34. Diagrammatic section across the Kashmir Himalaya, showing the broad
Tectonic Features................................................................................... 315 the distinctive characters of each, as we shall see in the following
35. Section through the Simla H im alaya........................................................ 316 pages, were impressed upon it from a very early period of its geological
36. Section across Western Rajputana to illustrate the peneplanation of an history, since which date each area has pursued its own career inde­
ancient mountain chain.......................................................................... 319
pendently. These three divisions are :
37. View of the great Baltoro Glacier........................................................ 390
38. Section of Pir Panjal across the N.E. Slope from Nilnag—Tatakuti - 391 1. The triangular plateau of the Peninsula {i.e. the Deccan, south
39. General Section, Naubug Valley, Margan Pass and Wardwan, to show the of the Yindhyas), with the island of Ceylon.
disposition of tho Palaeozoic rocks of Kashmir..................................... 400
2. The mountainous region of the Himalayas which borders India
40. Section across Lidar Valley A nticline........................................................ 400
41. Section of tho Zewan Series, Guryul Ravine. . . . . . 417 to the west, north, and east, including the countries of Afghanistan,
42. Section of the Triassic System of K ashm ir.............................................. 421 Baluchistan, and the hill-tracts of Burma, known as the extra-
43. Section showing the Relation of the Permo-Carboniferous and Eocene of peninsula.
432
the Jammu H ills ...................................................................................
44. Section across the Outermost Hills of the Sub-Himalaya at Jammu - 439 3. The great Indo-Gangetic Plain of the Punjab and Bengal,
45. Diagrammatic representation of the nappe structure of Garhwal Himalaya 441 separating the two former areas, and extending from the valley of the
Indus in Sind to that of the Brahmaputra in Assam.
Their characters and peculiarities—As mentioned above, the Pen-
uisula, as an earth-feature, is entirely unlike the extra-Peninsula.
W.Q.I. A