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GeoloGical enGineerinG 7007TS-GONZALEZ-1003-01-FM.indd 1 11/25/2010 7:38:35 PM Cover illustration by Luis I. González de Vallejo 7007TS-GONZALEZ-1003-01-FM.indd 2 11/25/2010 7:38:35 PM GeoloGical enGineerinG luis i. González de Vallejo Universidad Complutense de Madrid Mercedes Ferrer Instituto Geológico y Minero de España with a Foreword by M.H. de Freitas Imperial College, London 7007TS-GONZALEZ-1003-01-FM.indd 3 11/25/2010 7:38:35 PM CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4398-1229-7 (Ebook-PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. 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Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com BrieF conTenTS ABOUT THE AUTHORS xv CONTRIBUTORS xvii FOREWORD xix PREFACE xxi PART I – FUNDAMENTALS 1 INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING 3 2 SOIL MECHANICS AND ENGINEERING GEOLOGy OF SEDIMENTS 19 3 ROCk MECHANICS 109 4 HyDROGEOLOGy 223 PART II – METHODS 5 SITE INvESTIGATION 263 6 ROCk MASS DESCRIPTION AND CHARACTERISATION 327 7 ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL MAPPING 351 PART III – APPLICATIONS 8 FOUNDATIONS 369 9 SLOPES 401 10 TUNNELS 451 11 DAMS AND RESERvOIRS 501 12 EARTH STRUCTURES 535 PART Iv – GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS 13 LANDSLIDES AND OTHER MASS MOvEMENTS 555 14 SEISMIC HAZARD 595 15 PREvENTION OF GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS 625 7007TS-GONZALEZ-1003-01-FM.indd 5 11/25/2010 7:38:36 PM vi Brief CONTeNTS APPENDIX A CHARTS FOR CIRCULAR AND WEDGE FAILURE ANALySIS 643 APPENDIX B PRESSURE UNITS CONvERSION CHART 653 APPENDIX C SyMBOLS AND ACRONyMS 657 APPENDIX D LIST OF BOXES 663 APPENDIX E PERMISSIONS TO REPRODUCE FIGURES AND TABLES 665 INDEX 671 7007TS-GONZALEZ-1003-01-FM.indd 6 11/25/2010 7:38:36 PM conTenTS ABOUT THE AUTHORS xv plasticity 24 phase relationships 26 CONTRIBUTORS xvii 2.3 Flow oF water tHrougH soils 28 total head. bernoulli’s theorem 29 FOREWORD xix Hydrostatic conditions 29 ground water flow 30 PREFACE xxi basic concepts. Head loss and permeability 30 Hydraulic head and hydraulic gradient 31 PART I – FUNDAMENTALS Darcy’s law 31 steady flow in an isotropic medium 33 1 INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGICAL anisotropic soil conditions 36 ENGINEERING 3 permeability and water flow in stratified 1.1 DeFinition anD iMportance oF soils 38 geological engineering 4 2.4 eFFective stress 40 soil phases and soil structure 40 1.2 tHe geological environMent anD its saturated soils. the principle of relation witH engineering 6 effective stress 41 1.3 geological Factors anD geotecHnical seepage forces and piping 44 probleMs 8 loading saturated soils 50 the concept of consolidation 50 1.4 MetHoDs anD applications in concepts of loading with geological engineering 15 and without drainage 51 1.5 inForMation sources in engineering undrained loading in saturated soils 52 geology 16 2.5 consoliDation anD coMpressibility 56 1.6 How tHis book is structureD 16 normally consolidated and over- consolidated soils 56 recoMMenDeD reaDing 17 Horizontal stresses in the ground 62 reFerences 17 influence of complementary factors on soil behaviour 63 2 SOIL MECHANICS AND ENGINEERING the oedometer test 65 GEOLOGy OF SEDIMENTS 19 2.6 sHear strengtH oF soils 71 2.1 introDuction 20 Failure criterion 71 the nature of soils 20 the direct shear test 72 soils in geotechnical engineering 20 behaviour of soils subjected to shear stress 76 2.2 soil Description anD classiFication. granular soils 76 pHase relationsHips 23 clay soils 78 types of soils 23 the triaxial test 79 particle size distribution 23 the test apparatus 79 7007TS-GONZALEZ-1003-01-FM.indd 7 11/25/2010 7:38:36 PM viii CONTeNTS types of test 81 weathering processes 125 the uniaxial compression test 85 weathering of intact rock 126 weathering of rock masses 127 2.7 inFluence oF Mineralogy anD Fabric groundwater 129 on tHe geotecHnical properties permeability and water flow 129 oF soils 85 effects of water on the properties clay minerals in engineering geology 86 of rock masses 129 physico-chemical properties 88 geotechnical properties and mineralogical 3.3 stress anD strain in rocks 131 composition 89 Force and stress 131 Microfabric of clayey soils 89 stress on a plane 132 geotechnical properties and microfabric 93 stress in three dimensions 138 summary 94 strength and failure 139 basic concepts 139 2.8 engineering geological Failure mechanisms 140 cHaracteristics oF seDiMents 94 stress-strain relationships in rock 141 colluvial deposits 95 strength criteria 144 alluvial deposits 95 lacustrine deposits 95 3.4 strengtH anD DeForMability coastal deposits 95 oF intact rock 147 glacial deposits 96 strength and strength parameters 147 Deserts and arid climate deposits 97 effects of anisotropy and pore evaporitic deposits 98 pressure on strength 147 tropical soils 98 Failure criteria 149 volcanic soils 99 Mohr-coulomb criterion 149 Hoek-brown’s criterion 150 2.9 probleMatic soils 100 Deformability 150 swelling and shrinking clays 101 strength and deformability Dispersive soils 103 laboratory tests 154 saline and aggressive soils 104 uniaxial compression test 154 collapsible soils 104 triaxial compression test 159 the action of ice and permafrost 106 tensile strength tests 162 soft sensitive soils 106 sonic velocity 164 soils susceptible to liquefaction 106 limitations of laboratory tests 164 recoMMenDeD reaDing 107 3.5 Discontinuities 165 reFerences 107 influence on rock mass behaviour 165 types of discontinuities 166 3 ROCk MECHANICS 109 characteristics of discontinuities 168 3.1 introDuction 110 shear strength of discontinuity planes 170 Definition, objectives and scope 110 barton and choubey criterion 172 rock and soil 112 Discontinuities with infilling 175 rock masses 113 Direct shear strength laboratory test 175 permeability and water pressure 177 3.2 pHysical anD MecHanical properties oF rocks 116 3.6 strengtH anD DeForMability oF rock rock characteristics 116 Masses 179 physical properties of intact rock 118 rock mass strength 179 rock classification for geotechnical Failure criteria for isotropic purposes 122 rock masses 181 rock mass classification 124 Failure criteria for anisotropic weathering of rock 125 rock masses 186 7007TS-GONZALEZ-1003-01-FM.indd 8 11/25/2010 7:38:36 PM CONTeNTS ix summary 187 pumping tests 238 rock mass deformability 187 injection tests 248 In situ deformability tests 188 tracer tests 249 geophysical methods 188 4.5 solution MetHoDs 251 empirical correlations 189 analytical methods 251 permeability and water pressure 193 Flow nets 252 scale effect 195 numerical methods 253 3.7 In sItU stress 201 4.6 cHeMical properties oF water 255 origin and types of in situ stress 201 chemical quality of groundwater 255 geological and morphological factors physical-chemical processes. water-aquifer which influence the state of stress 203 interaction 256 Methods for measuring in situ stress 205 contamination of groundwater 257 Measuring the direction of stresses by anthropogenic activities 257 geological methods 206 Mechanisms of ground water contamination 258 estimating stress magnitude from empirical relationships 207 recoMMenDeD reaDing anD reFerences 259 instrumental methods for measuring PART II – METHODS orientation and magnitude of stress 207 3.8 rock Mass classiFications 215 5 SITE INvESTIGATION 263 rMr classification 216 5.1 planning anD Design 264 geomechanical classifications in practice 216 aims and importance 264 recoMMenDeD reaDing 220 planning site investigations 264 reFerences 221 5.2 preliMinary investigations 268 Desk-based study 268 4 HyDROGEOLOGy 223 aerial photo and remote sensing 4.1 HyDrogeological beHaviour interpretation 269 oF soils anD rocks 224 aerial photo interpretation 269 types of aquifers and their behaviour 224 remote sensing 270 piezometric level 227 the walk-over survey 273 water movement in aquifers 228 preliminary site investigation report 275 5.3 engineering geopHysics 275 4.2 HyDrogeological paraMeters 230 surface geophysics 276 porosity 230 electrical methods 276 storage coefficient 231 seismic methods 277 permeability 232 electromagnetic methods 282 transmissivity 233 gravity methods 285 4.3 Flow. Darcy’s law anD FunDaMental Magnetic methods 285 Flow equations in porous MeDia 233 borehole geophysics 286 Darcy’s law 233 geophysical logging 286 Darcy’s velocity and real velocity 234 seismic logging inside boreholes 287 generalization of Darcy’s law 235 seismic tomography 288 continuity equation for steady flow 236 5.4 boreHoles, trial pits, trencHes laplace equation 236 anD saMpling 289 poisson’s equation 237 borehole drilling 289 Flow equation in transitory regime 237 rotary drilling 289 4.4 evaluation MetHoDs For HyDro- auger drilling 291 geological paraMeters 238 percussion drilling 292 7007TS-GONZALEZ-1003-01-FM.indd 9 11/25/2010 7:38:36 PM

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A thorough knowledge of geology is essential in the design and construction of infrastructures for transport, buildings and mining operations; while an understanding of geology is also crucial for those working in urban, territorial and environmental planning and in the prevention and mitigation of