Geological atlas of St. Petersburg

60 Pages·174.923 MB·English

GEOLOGICAL
ATLAS
OF
SAINT-PETERSBURG
GeoInforM
LIFE06 TCY/ROS/000267
Published with financial support
of the European Union
Government of Saint Petersburg
Committee for Nature Use, Environmental Protection and Ecological Safety

GEOLOGICAL
OF SAINT PETERSBURG

GeoInforM
LIFE06 TCY/ROS/000267

Published with financial support
of the European Union

Saint Petersburg
2009
УДК 551
ББК 26.3
Г 36

Г 36 ГЕОЛОГИЧЕСКИЙ АТЛАС САНКТ-ПЕТЕРБУРГА, СПб, Комильфо, 2009, - 57 с.
ISBN 978-5-91339-080-6
Геологический атлас Санкт-Петербурга создан в рамках международного проекта «Использование геологической информации в управлении городской средой для предотвращения
геологических рисков (ГеоИнфорМ)». Проект был реализован под руководством Комитета по природопользованию, охране окружающей среды и обеспечению экологической
безопасности Санкт-Петербурга (КПООС) при финансовой поддержке программы Европейской Комиссии «Лайф Третьи страны» в сотрудничестве с Геологической службой Финляндии,
Правительством Провинции Милана (Италия), Министерством городского развития и охраны окружающей среды Гамбурга (Германия) и Санкт-Петербургским ГГУП «Специализированая
фирма «Минерал». В работе над атласом принимали участие: федеральное государственное унитарное предприятие «Всероссийский научно-исследовательский институт имени
А.П.Карпинского» (ФГУП «ВСЕГЕИ»), Северо-западный филиал Российского федерального геологического фонда (СЗФ Росгеолфонд), Санкт-Петербургское государственное
геологическое унитарное предприятие «Специализированная фирма «Минерал» (ГГУП СФ Минерал), Геологическая служба Финляндии (GTK).
Атлас включает 8 разделов, отражающих особенности состояния геологической среды на территории города. В него вошли сведения о геологическом строении; гидрогеологическая
и инженерно-геологическая характеристика территории; данные о геологическом строении дна акватории Финского залива; зоны проявления современных геологических процессов.
Особое место в Атласе занимает раздел «Интегральная оценка геологических рисков», посвященный современным геологическим процессам, оказывающим негативное влияние на
городскую среду.
Геологический атлас Санкт-Петербурга может быть использован для учета особенностей подземного пространства в процессе его освоения, снижения экологических и эколого-
геологических рисков при разработке и реализации планов по развитию города.
Английская версия Атласа представлена на компакт-диске.
Ответственный редактор: Н.Б. Филиппов (ГГУП СФ Минерал, к.г.-м.н)
Научный редактор: М.А.Спиридонов (заведующий отделом ФГУП «ВСЕГЕИ», д.г.-м.н, академик РАЕН)
Члены редколлегии: Д.А.Голубев (председатель КПООС, к.г.н.), Н.Д.Сорокин (заместитель председателя КПООС, к.ф.-м.н.), И.А.Серебрицкий (начальник управления КПООС, к.г.-м.н.),
Д.А.Франк-Каменецкий (начальник отдела КПООС, к.г.-м.н.), Г.И.Сергеева (начальник сектора КПООС), Г.А.Стуккей (директор СЗФ Росгеолфонд, к.г.-м.н), И.В.Богатырев (заместитель
директора ГГУП СФ Минерал).
Коллектив авторов.
Т.С.Бахарев (ГГУП СФ Минерал), В.А.Жамойда (к.г.-м.н., ФГУП «ВСЕГЕИ»), С.Э.Зубарев (к.г.-м.н., ГГУП СФ Минерал), Й.Кляйн (GTK), В.И.Мишин (СЗФ Росгеолфонд),
Ю.А.Могиленко (ГГУП СФ Минерал), Е.В.Нестерова (ФГУП «ВСЕГЕИ»), Д.В.Рябчук (к.г.-м.н., ФГУП «ВСЕГЕИ»), Г.Б.Савенкова (ГГУП СФ Минерал), Г.И.Сергеева (КПООС),
И.А.Серебрицкий (к.г.-м.н., КПООС), Г.А.Стуккей (к.г.-м.н., СЗФ Росгеолфонд), О.В.Томилина (ГГУП СФ Минерал), Е.С.Федотова (ГГУП СФ Минерал), Г.Н.Федько (ГГУП СФ
Минерал), Д.А.Франк-Каменецкий (к.г.-м.н., КПООС), Я.Ярва (GTK).
Дизайн обложки К.И.Богатырева.
GEOLOGICAL ATLAS OF ST. PETERSBURG, St.Petersburg, 2009, Comilfo, - 57 pp.
ISBN 978-5-91339-080-6
The Geological Atlas of St. Petersburg has been produced in the framework of the international project “Integrating Geological Information in City Management to Prevent Environmental Risks
(GeoInforM)”. The Project was implemented under the aegis of the Committee for Nature Use, Environmental Protection, and Ecological Safety of St. Petersburg (CEP) with financial support of the
European Commission “Life Third Countries” in cooperation with the Geological Survey of Finland, the Province of Milan, Italy, State Ministry of Urban Development and Environment, Free and
Hanseatic City of Hamburg, Germany, and St. Petersburg State Geological Company “Mineral”, Russia. Following enterprises took part in the compilation of the Atlas: Federal State Unitary Enterprise
A.P. Karpinsky All Russian Geological Research Institute (FGUP VSEGEI), Northwestern branch of the Russian Federal Geological Archive (SZF Rosgeolfond), St. Petersburg State Geological
Company “Mineral” (SC Mineral), Geological Survey of Finland (GTK).
The Atlas includes eight sections reflecting the state of geological environment of the city. It contains information on the geological structure, hydrogeological structure, hydrogeological and engineering
geological characteristic of the area, data on geological structure of the bottom of the Gulf of Finland, zones of recent geological processes. The section “Integral assessment of geological risks” devoted
to current geological processes that affect negatively the urban environment takes a special position in the Atlas.
The Geological Atlas of St. Petersburg can be used for accounting characteristics of the subsurface space in the process of its development, environmental and ecogeological risk mitigation during the
elaboration and realization of urban development plans.
The English version of the Atlas is available on CD.
Managing editor: N.B.Philippov (director, SC Mineral, cand. geol.-min. sc.),
Scientific editor: M.A. Spiridonov (head of FGUP VSEGEI department, doctor of geological and mineralogical sciences, academician of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences
Members of the Editorial Board: D.A. Golubev (chairman of CEP, cand. geogr. sc.), N.D. Sorokin (vice-chairman of CEP, cand. phys.-math. sc.), I.A. Serebritsky (head of department, CEP, cand.
geol.-min. sc. ), D.A. Frank-Kamenetsky (head of division, CEP, cand. geol.-min. sc.), G.I. Sergeeva (head of sector, CEP), G.A.Stukkey (Director, SZF Rosgeolfond, cand. geol.-min. sc.),
I.V.Bogatyrev (deputy director, SC Mineral)
Team of authors:
T.S.Bakharev (SC Mineral), V.A.Zhamoida (cand. geol.-min. sc., FGUP VSEGEI), S.E.Zubarev (cand. geol.-min. sc., SC Mineral), J.Klein (GTK), V.I.Mishin (SZF Rosgeolfond), Yu.A.Mogilenko
(SC Mineral), E.V.Nesterova (FGUP VSEGEI), D.V.Ryabchuk (cand. geol.-min. sc., FGUP VSEGEI), G.B.Savenkova (SC Mineral), G.I.Sergeeva (CEP), I.A.Serebritsky (cand. geol.-min. sc., CEP),
G.A Stukkey (cand. geol.-min. sc., SZF Rosgeolfond), O.V.Tomilina (SC Mineral), E.S. Fedotova (SC Mineral), G.N.Fedko (SC Mineral), D.A. Frank-Kamenetsky (cand. geol.-min. sc., CEP), J.Jarva
(GTK).
Cover design by K.I. Bogatyreva.

Геологический атлас Санкт-Петербурга составлен при финансовой поддержке Европейского Союза в рамках международного проекта «Использование
геологической информации в управлении городской средой для предотвращения экологических рисков (ГеоИнфорМ)» LIFE06 TCY/ROS/000267
The Geological Atlas of St. Petersburg has been produced with the financial support of the European Union in the framework of the Project “Integrating Geological
Information in City Management to Prevent Environmental Risks (GeoInforM)” LIFE06 TCY/ROS/000267
Beneficiary of GeoInforM project:
Комитет по природопользованию, охране окружающей среды и обеспечению экологической безопасности Правительства Санкт-Петербурга
Committee for Nature Use, Environmental protection and Ecological Safety, the Government of St. Petersburg

Partners of GeoInforM project:
Государственное министерство городского развития и охраны
окружающей среды Свободного и Ганзейского города
Геологическая служба Финляндии
Гамбурга, Германия
Geological Survey of Finland
State Ministry of Urban Development and Environment, Free and

Hanseatic City of Hamburg, Germany
Санкт-Петербургское государственное геологическое унитарное
Правительство Провинции Милана, Италия
предприятие «Специализированная фирма «Минерал», Россия
Province of Milan, Italy
St. Petersburg State Geological Company “Mineral, Russia
За содержание настоящего издания несут ответственность исключительно Бенефициар и партнеры проекта «ГеоИнфорМ», и оно ни в коем случае не может рассматриваться как
отражение позиции Европейского Союза.
The contents of the present publication are the sole responsibility of the Beneficiary and the partners of GeoInforM project and can in no way be taken to reflect the views of the European Union.

ISBN 978-5-91339-080-6 © Коллектив авторов, 2009 (Composite authors, 2009)
© Комитет по природопользованию, охране окружающей среды и
обеспечению экологической безопасности Санкт-Петербурга, 2009
(Committee for Nature Use, Environmental Protection, and Ecological
Safety of St. Petersburg, 2009)
Table of Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
1. Physiographic s review ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5
2. History of geological investigations in Saint Petersburg ............................................................................................................................................. 6
3. Geomorphology ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Maps:
Geomorphologic map (scale 1: 350,000) .................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
4. Geological structure ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
4.1. Pre-Quaternary deposits ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 11
4.2. Quaternary deposits .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 11
4.3. Surface deposits of the sea floor ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
4.4. Tectonics, neotectonics ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Maps:
Geological map of Pre-Quaternary deposits (scale 1:200,000) ............................................................................................................................................. 14-15
Geological map of Quaternary deposits of land (scale 1:200,000) ........................................................................................................................................ 16-17
Geological map of Quaternary deposits in the Neva Inlet and the eastern Gulf of Finland (scale 1:200,000) ........................................................................... 18
Lithologic map of the bottom surface in the Neva Inlet and eastern Gulf of Finland (scale 1:200 000) .................................................................................... 19
Geological map of the crystalline basement (scale1:350,000) ................................................................................................................................................... 20
Map of recent tectonic activation (scale 1:350,000) ................................................................................................................................................................... 20
5. Hydrogeological structure and engineering-geological conditions .......................................................................................................................... 21
5.1. Hydrogeological structure .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
5.2. Engineering-geological conditions ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Maps:
Hydrogeological map of Quaternary deposits (scale 1:200,000) ........................................................................................................................................... 24-25
Hydrogeological map of Pre-Quaternary deposits (scale 1:200,000) .................................................................................................................................... 26-27
Engineering-geological map of the day surface (scale 1:200,000) ........................................................................................................................................ 28-29
Engineering-geological map of the day surface in the city centre (scale 1:50,000) .............................................................................................................. 30-31
Engineering-geological map of the 10-metre depth slice (scale 1:200,000) .......................................................................................................................... 32-33
Engineering-geological map of the 10-metre depth slice in the city centre (scale 1:50,000) ............................................................................................... 34-35
6. Mineral resources ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 36
7. State of geological environment and exogenous geological processes ..................................................................................................................... 39
7.1. Exogenous geological processes ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 39
7.2. Underground gases ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 40
7.3. Effect of ground water management on the state of geological environment: case study of the Vendian aquifer system ................................................... 41
7.4. Geological and hydrogeological construction constrains ..................................................................................................................................................... 41
Maps:
Map of exogenous geological processes (scale 1:200,000) ................................................................................................................................................... 42-43
Map of underground gas shows (scale 1:1,000,000) .................................................................................................................................................................. 44
Map of biogas shows (scale 1:200,000) ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 44
Maps of piezometric levels in the Vendian aquifer system, Diagrammatic section ................................................................................................................... 45
Zoning map in respect of construction constrains (scale 1:200,000) ..................................................................................................................................... 46-47
8. Integrated geological risks assessment ........................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Maps:
Geological risk maps (scale 1:600,000) ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 51
Risk map in respect of construction constrains (scale 1:200,000) ......................................................................................................................................... 52-53
Map of integrated geological risks assessment (scale 1:200,000) ......................................................................................................................................... 54-55
Conclusions .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 56
References ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 56

3
Introduction
The status of natural environment and its influence on the human activity is now one of fundamental problems of mankind. Interaction between the human being and the
environment plays a particular role in the development of large cities. With the development of high-rise construction against intensive use of underground space, the load
on the geological environment increases greatly affecting the sustainable development of large city.
In turn, the city's subsurface is a source of natural resources, among which fresh water is of the greatest importance. Many cities in the world, such as Hamburg, Milan, Paris
and others almost completely satisfy their demand in potable water due to groundwater sources.
In this regard, at present, accounting peculiarities of the geological structure of the area is of particular significance in urban planning. Selection of the best solution in terms
of geology at the stage of design allows us not only to reduce essentially the project costs, but also to reduce manifold the environmental risk caused by excessive load on
the geological environment.
The solution of the problem requires high-quality, detailed, accurate and comprehensive geological information. Amendments made in Federal Law 122-FZ of 22.08.04 to
the RF Law "On Subsoil", substantially increased powers of constituent entities of the Russian Federation in the field of regulation of subsoil use problems. In accordance
with these amendments, the constituent entities of the Russian Federation are given the authority to grant subsoil plots for use, organization of licensing and monitoring in
the field of subsoil use, as well as for the management of the territorial archive of geological information that is of great importance for St. Petersburg. Data kept in the Arc-
hive served as the basis for the compilation of the Geological Atlas of St. Petersburg.
The Atlas consists of eight sections, reflecting almost all the features of the state of the geological environment in the city. It includes information about the geological struc-
ture of the city in the age interval from the Precambrian till nowadays, hydrogeological and engineering and geological characteristics of the area, data on the geological
structure of the bottom of the Gulf of Finland and Neva Inlet, as well as information about recent geological processes.
This Atlas is a modern view of features of St. Petersburg’ geological structure. It integrates not only data of numerous geological and hydrogeological studies, but also re-
sults of monitoring the geological environment, which includes regular monitoring current geological processes and the groundwater state. The most recent principles of
stratigraphic subdivision of geological and hydrogeological sections were used in compiling the maps presented in the Atlas.
Special place in the Atlas is given to the integrated assessment of geological risks. This section contains not only a description of recent geological processes that have a
negative impact on the urban infrastructure, but also a new approach to zoning in respect of geological risks. Geological risk maps of St. Petersburg were compiled in coop-
eration with colleagues from the Geological Survey of Finland having wide experience in the assessment of geological risks for various areas in different countries of the
world. All of the Atlas maps are accompanied by explanatory texts, tables and other illustrative material.
In preparation of the Atlas, the authors used information presented by leading industry enterprises and research institutes of the city. Specialists of following enterprises took
part in the compilation of the Atlas: Committee for Nature Use, Environmental Protection, and Ecological Safety of St. Petersburg, Federal State Unitary Enterprise A.P.
Karpinsky All Russian Geological Research Institute, Northwestern branch of the Russian Federal Geological Archive, St. Petersburg State Geological Company “Mineral”,
and Geological Survey of Finland.
Geologic Atlas of St. Petersburg, as the most recent synthesis of the geological information taking into account existing numerous geological materials of various forms and
contents, is aimed to be used in elaboration and implementation of plans for urban development based on principles of rational use of subsoil space and natural resources. In
considering in the Atlas the history of geological investigations in the city, the authors highlighted not only their periodization and purposefulness, but also the fact that St.
Petersburg is a "cradle" of national geology.
The Geological Atlas of St. Petersburg is a result of work under the international project “Integrating Geological Information in City Management to Prevent Environmental
Risks (GeoInforM)”. The Project was implemented under the aegis of the Committee for Nature Use, Environmental Protection, and Ecological Safety of St. Petersburg
(CNUEP) with financial support of the European Commission “Life Third Countries” in cooperation with the Geological Survey of Finland, the Province of Milan, Italy,
State Ministry of Urban Development and Environment, Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg, Germany, and St. Petersburg State Geological Company “Mineral”, Russia.
The main goal of the project was formulated as more efficient management in the sphere of the environmental protection by taking into account peculiarities of the geologi-
cal structure in decision-making on urban infrastructure development in St. Petersburg.
4
1. Physiographic review
Administrative and geographic position The Gulf of Finland within the city is shallow; its depth varies from 2.5 to 6 m,
and in the coast line up to 1 m. The eastern Gulf of Finland from the Neva delta to
In administrative respect, St. Petersburg is a separate entity of the Russian
the Kotlin Island - Neva Inlet is connected with the rest of the Gulf of Finland
Federation in the North-Western Federal Area. It is also the centre of the
through the Northern and Southern gates of the St. Petersburg Flood Protection
Leningrad Oblast.
Barrier (FPB). Marine channel and fairways were constructed in the Neva Inlet
St. Petersburg is one of the largest Russian cities both in population (more than for the passage of vessels. The water salinity of the Neva Inlet is less than 2% due
4.5 million) and in the area (about 1400 km2). This is the main economic centre of to large inflow of water from rivers, especially from the Neva River. Frequent
the North-West Economic Region: many enterprises of different industries are of storms occur in the Gulf of Finland, especially in autumn during periods of
federal importance, they provide the industrial development of the Leningrad intensive cyclones.
Oblast. St. Petersburg is also cultural and scientific centre of world significance.
Of many lakes in the city, the largest are the Suzdal Lakes, located directly in the
The city is situated on the East European Plain, in the Neva estuary and on the city, as well as Lake Shchuchye near Zelenogorsk. These lakes are of natural
southern and northern coasts of the Gulf of Finland. Geographic position of the origin. Other lakes, the Lakhtinsky Razlive and Sestroretsky Razlive, are of
city is very favourable for economic development. The largest present-day port of anthropogenic origin and resulted from damming the Sestra and Kamenka rivers.
the North-Western region of Russia is situated here that provides close Numerous artificial ponds and open pits are located on the lower terrace, where
relationship with foreign countries. The city is also the largest railway, highway, they are fed by waters of springs on the slopes and at the foot of the Littorina
and aviation centre. Terrace.
At present, the area of St. Petersburg is subdivided into 18 administrative districts: There are many rivers and streams in the city. Some of them were aligned and
Admiralteisky, Vasileostrovsky, Vyborgsky, Kalininsky, Kirovsky, Kolpinsky, channeled during urban construction. Main river artery of the city is the Neva
Krasnogvardeisky, Krasnoselsky, Kronshtadtsky, Kurortny, Moscovsky, Nevsky, River. It is a lacustrine channel of total length of 74 km, 32 km of them cross the
Petrodvortsovy, Petrogradsky, Primorsky, Pushkinsky, Frunzensky, Tsentralny. city. The Neva is of prime importance for St. Petersburg. At initial stages, the
capital was being constructed along its banks: large depths allowed marine vessels

to sail into its estuary. The river is the main source of water supply of the city.
Relief
Water from the vast Lake Ladoga basin (281,000 sq. km) flows to the Gulf of
The recent relief of the city area is a result of influence of various geologic Finland via the Neva. In this area, precipitation is considerably higher than
processes, mainly those associated with epochs of glaciations and warming. There evaporation, so the Neva is extremely abundant in water: the annual water
were three epochs of glaciations and warming between them. Denudation and consumption is 77 cubic km/sec. Its depth is mostly 8.11 m, up to 26 m at the
karst processes against crustal uplifting are of great importance in the evolution of Liteiny Bridge. In the city, the Neva forms pseudodelta with numerous channels
the relief. and islands.
Erosive-accumulative activity of water flows and reservoirs has been main relief- Due to the uniform water flow from Lake Ladoga during the year, the Neva has
forming factor for St. Petersburg for a long period of geological time. The almost neither water rises in spring, no flooding caused by rainfall. However, in
development of the relief is closely associated with the evolution of previously autumn, in the Neva estuary, the water often rises because of strong western
exited marine and lacustrine late and post-glacial basins. Successive recession of cyclonic winds. The water in the river rises almost every year, sometimes strong
reservoir levels is reflected in the terrace-like relief of the Neva and Primorsky floods occur. Thus, during the most destructive floods in November 1824, the
lowlands. Two terraces are most clean-cut. The higher terrace is a lacustrine- water in the Neva River rose to 421 cm above the normal level.
glacial terrace with an elevation of to 60-65 m. Its surface is complicated by kame
Smaller rivers and streams flow into the Neva River in the city. The largest of
hills and ridges. Relative altitudes of these elevations are 5 to 50 m. Lower level
them are the Okhta and Chernaya rivers (northern tributaries) and the Izhora River
corresponds to the littorina terrace bordering the Gulf of Finland. The terrace is
(southern tributary), but they are of no importance in water supply of the Neva.
not very wide and only southeast and east of Sestroretsk it reaches 8 km. The
elevation varies from 10 to 16 m. The beach is 20 to 200 m wide. The terraces are Other smaller rivers and streams flow directly into the Gulf of Finland. In the
separated over great distance by a bench well-defined in the relief, which is often northern part of the city, the most important of the rivers, Sister, Kamenka and
baselevelled by erosive and technogenic processes. Roshchinka, originate from large swamps of the Leningrad Oblast. In southern
areas, the largest of them (Strelka, Karasta, Dudergofka, Pulkovka) flow from
Northern and eastern city limits coincide with the margin of the moraine uplift
numerous springs along the Baltic-Ladoga Glint; they are supplied by
that occupies central part of the Karelian Isthmus. The relief here is composed of
groundwater.
glacial and aqueoglacial accumulation: alternation of hills, kame, esters, and
outwash plains with depressions occupied by lakes and bogs and shallow river
valleys.
The relief of the city center, located in the Neva estuary, lost many of its natural
features: at present most of the center is composed of technogenic relief
consisting of aggradational and fill-up ground. Thickness of the aggradational and
fill-up ground runs up to tens of meters, reservoirs and many river valleys were
filled with earth. At present, the sea-front of the city is being constructed:
significant areas in the Gulf of Finland are accreted, the coast line is changed.
The southern city boundary coincides with the Baltic-Ladoga Glint that limits the
Izhora Hills. In the city, the Izhora Hills and partially the Baltic-Ladoga Glint
occur in the Krasnoselsky District. The surface of the uplift is flat with elevations
of up to 65-75 m (Pulkovo Hills). The Baltic-Ladoga Glint is well-defined in
relief, its height above sea level runs up to 25-30 m; it is often dissected by deeply
incut narrow valleys of smaller rivers and streams. Sinkholes are rather common
in the relief.

Climate
The climate of St. Petersburg is transitional from continental to maritime, due to
the interaction of marine and continental air masses from temperate and arctic
latitudes: frequent arctic air ingressions and intense cyclonic activity. Relatively
mild winters and moderately warm humid summers, high relative humidity,
windy weather and cloudy sky all the year round are typical. Autumn is warmer
than spring due to predominance of southern and south-westerly winds that bring
heat from the Atlantic. Spring is dominated by cold northern winds. Intense
cyclonic activity and frequent changes of air masses result in very unstable
weather in all seasons.
Mean annual precipitation ranges from 700 mm on the coast of the Gulf of
Finland to 750 mm away from it. Yearly distribution of precipitation is uneven:
60-65% of total precipitation falls during warm period (from April to October).
Most of the year, relative humidity exceeds 80%, often runs up to 90% in
November-January, therefore the evaporation from the surface does not exceed
300 mm.

Hydrography
Surface water and, primarily, the Gulf of Finland, Neva Inlet, and the Neva River
throughout the historical development of the city contributed greatly to the
present-day image of St. Petersburg.
5
2. History of geological investigations in Saint Petersburg
2.1. History of geological investigations in Saint Petersburg and K.D. Glinka, A.F. Faas, V.A. Kotlukov, A.F. Lesnikova, B.Z. Skorokhod, V.
Leningrad Oblast Zaks, G. Bander, A. Cleve-Euler, M.A. Lavrov, B.Z. Menaker, E.N. Ivanova,
L.V. Ivanova, and others took part in studies of the Geological Committee. One of
The area of St. Petersburg and its environs, as well as the adjacent water areas
the most important geological results of this period was the compilation of sets of
have long-term history of geological studies rich in various facts and events. The
geological maps at a scale of 1:200,000. Integrated geological and hydrogeologi-
results of these investigations are presented in monographs, essays, articles, and
cal surveys at the same scale started in 1947. Information accumulated by World
geological maps. There were several stages in the history of geological investiga-
War II was generalized in the monograph “Geology of the USSR: v. 1 (Lenin-
tions of St. Petersburg: from the seventeenth to the nineteenth century: Initial
grad, Novgorod and Pskov regions)” published in 1948.
stage of knowledge accumulation and elaboration of principle geological con-

cepts; the late nineteenth to the mid-twentieth century: Stage of systematic geo-
logical surveys; second half of the twentieth century: Stage of engineering, geo-
logical and hydrogeological studies. Our time is a stage of thematic and specia-
lized (including environmental-geological and offshore and onshore) geological
studies.
Scattered and not always reliable information about geological research of the
area, where later on St. Petersburg was constructed, appeared in Swedish and then
in Russia’s literature in the second half of the seventeenth century and till the be-
ginning of the nineteenth century they were scarce and random. At that time
people searched for construction materials and groundwater. Systematic geologi-
cal investigations began after the establishment in the city of the Mineralogical
Society in 1817. One of the first published papers devoted to geology was “Geog-
nostic description of the St. Petersburg environs” (G.F. Strangveis, 1830).
G.F. Strangveis, indicating relatively weak geological knowledge of the area as
compared to some other parts of Russia, wrote: “At first glance, St. Petersburg
environs seem of little promise to a curious Geologist: he can see nothing but a
vast area, composed, as it seems, everywhere of aggradational deposits separated
from parent rock; what is more, the unexplored wilderness of some areas existing
till nowadays in the vicinity of the city, can but in a rare case produce a desire for

investigations, where there is nothing alluring, where there is no scenic beauty ...
May be that is why this country is hitherto little known in terms of geology”
Fig. 2.2 Map of late-and postglacial basins in the eastern Gulf of Finland (Markov, 1933)
(Strangveis, 1830). In 1852, Professor S.S. Kutorga compiled the “Geognostic
map of St. Petersburg Guberniya” at a scale of 1:420,000 (10 miles per inch), ac-
After the war, main information on geology of Leningrad was supplied by North-
companied by geological sections and composite stratigraphic column (Fig. 2.1).
Western Geological Department (SZGU), 5th Geological Department (5th GU),
The earliest information concerning stratigraphy and paleontology of Pre-
Lengeolnerudtrest, GRII, LENTISIZ, Lengidrotrans and many other design and
Quaternary deposits in the St. Petersburg environs was obtained due to studies of
research institutions. Significant amount of new data was obtained in the course
H.G. Pander, E.I. Eichwald, R. Murchinson, S.S. Kutorga and others. Systematic
of sheet-by-sheet geological survey at a scale of 1:200,000 (Leningrad Geological
geological study of the city began in the second half of the nineteenth century. I.I.
Expedition of SZGU) that was started in the mid-50s of the last century, and inte-
Bok, published the “detailed description of all the principal exposures of Silurian
grated geological and hydrogeological mapping (5th PG) (Z.V. Yatskevich,
and Devonian deposits in uyezds of the St. Petersburg Guberniya” (Bok, 1869).
N.I. Apukhtin, V.A. Selivanov, P.F. Semenov, L.F. Sokolov, V.P. Malyshev,
F.B. Schmidt elaborated the stratigraphic scale of Cambrian (1858-1897) and Or-
Z.M. Monrienko, S.R. Shevchenko, Z.K. Garibyan, G.V. Grigoriev, E.E. Fotiadi,
dovician (1881-1907) deposits. The Academician G.P. Helmersen’s paper “Physi-
and others). Tectonic, stratigraphic, lithological, paleontological, geochemical,
cal and geological conditions of St. Petersburg” (Helmersen, 1864), devoted to the
geological and hydrogeological notions corresponding to the concept of “Geology
history of geological evolution (including the late- and post-glacial), the forma-
of Leningrad” have been formulated at that time.
tion of the Neva River, properties of urban soils, and lithodynamics of the Neva
delta was published in 1864. P.A. Kropotkin, who for the first time substantiated Geological map at a scale of 1:1,000,000 (Sheet 0-36-Leningrad) was published
the hypothesis of continental glaciation in North Europe (Kropotkin, 1876), stu- in 1957. N.N. Sokolov (1946-1955) identified in the city and its environs several
died Quaternary deposits around the city. stages of the Valdai glaciation recession (Leningrad and Finnish). Stratigraphic
scale, genetic classification and areal extent of Quaternary (glacial) deposits have
been elaborated, developed and detailed by S.A. Yakovlev and S.V. Yakovleva
(1956), who also used data of geological sections and boreholes located in the
city.
Significant advances in the study of the Quaternary cover and geomorphology of
the area, including urban areas, have been described in papers of K.K. Markov
(1961), M.A. Lavrova (1962). New information on structure, composition, age
and origin of Quaternary deposits and relief of Leningrad were obtained due to
works of I.I. Krasnov, N.I. Apukhtin, K.K. Markov, O.M. Znamenskaya, D.B.
Malakhovsky, T.V. Usikova, E.A. Spiridonova, E.V. Rukhina, T.V. Dorozhkin
and others.
Subsequent years of the last century were primarily devoted to the large-scale
geological mapping (1:50,000) and the continuation of geological surveys at a
scale of 1:200,000. In 1971, information on the geological structure of Leningrad
was presented in volumes I and IV of the monograph “Geology of the USSR”
(Figs. 2.3, 2.4).
Geological surveys in the city were continued, including those aimed at the inte-
grated geological mapping of the Greater Leningrad at a scale of 1:25,000. The
year 1989 was marked by the publication of the 1:1M Geological map (new se-
ries) for Sheet O-(35) - 36 (37) (PKGE PGO Sevzapgeologia). The results were
Fig. 2.1 Fragment of the “Geognostic map of the St. Petersburg Guberniya”, 1852 used to justify the master plan for Leningrad - St. Petersburg (A.I .Khudyakov.
G.I. Bogdanov, V.S. Savanin, N.A. Kovzel, Yu.V. Nikolaev, A.S. Nikolaev and
At the same time, the Geological map of the European Russia at a scale of 1:420 others).
000 was complied and published sheet-by-sheet by Geological Committee (Geol-
Geophysical surveys and stratigraphic drilling were carried out in the city. Geo-
com). The area of the city was studied and mapped (Sheet 26) in 1882-1904. В
logical problems of Leningrad - St. Petersburg discussed in many papers of the
1905-1906, the Geolcom (N.A. Sokolov) made large-scale (1:42,000) mapping of
Leningrad State University (St. Petersburg State University), Mining Institute,
the urban area (between the Neva estuary and the frontier with Finland), studied
Institute of Limnology RAS, LISI, A.I. Hertsen Pedagogical Institute, VNIIO-
in detail geomorphology and Quaternary deposits. At the same period, N.F. Po-
keangeologia, etc. (E.V. Rukhina, L.I . Salie, O.M. Znamenskaya, E.S. Malyaso-
grebov carried out hydrogeological surveys south of the Neva River (“with a view
va, R.E. Dashko, A.N. Pavlov, O.Yu. Alexandrova, E.A. Spiridonova,
to find the possibility to supply spring water to the capital”) (Pogrebov, 1911).
E.S. Malysheva, N.N. Verzilin, G.I. Kleimenova, R.N. Dzhinoridze, N.P. Gei,
Maps of De Geer (1910) and W. Ramsey (1917) devoted to the stages of the Bal-
E.M. Nesterov, G.S. Biske, M.V. Shitov, N.A. Kurennoy, V.V. Ivanov and oth-
tic evolution with distinguishing of Littorina, Ancylus, and Yoldia deposits are of
ers).
fundamental importance for understanding the geological history of the city.
Study of groundwater during the first half of the twentieth century was carried out
Intensive research were conducted in the 20-30s of the twentieth century under
sporadically, and in the city it was associated with balneological problems and
the supervision of N.N. Sokolov (1926-1936), S.A. Yakovlev (1932), K.K. Mar-
water supply. Task-oriented drilling of exploration and operating wells began in
kov (1933) (Fig. 2.2), I.V. Potulova (1922-1933), I.V. Danilevsky (1925-1926),
the 20-30s of the last century (N.F. Pogrebov, 1932; B.N. Arkhangelsky, and
M.E. Yanishevsky (1932), B.P. Asatkin (1933) and others. E.M. Moshtkevich,
M.A. Gatal'sky, 1941; B.N. Arkhangelsky, G.V. Il’in, V.A. Krotova, 1946).
6
Groundwater was actively studied in the second half of twentieth century
Later on, substantial contribution to geological studies in Leningrad - St. Peters-
(Yu.V. Nikolaev, A.S. Nikolaev, A.G. Garbar, E.L. Greyser, M.N. Stronskaya,
burg was made by PGO Sevzapgeologia (V.V. Proskuryakov, S.A. Golubev, K.D.
L.Yu Korotkova and others). Hydrogeology of the city is depicted on the relevant
Belyaev, B.V. Anichkin, A.P. Lukhanin and others). Great efforts were made for
map at a scale of 1:500,000 with an explanatory note for the area that includes 3
searching, assessment, and exploration of building materials, fresh and mineral
oblasts of the North-West of the USSR.
groundwater and other mineral resources, as well as a large number of related and
Many details of the geological structure, hydrogeology and environmental geolo- regional studies.
gy of the city were identified in the process of specialized geological surveying at
At the present stage of urban geological surveys, environmental and geological
a scale of 1:50,000 (Auslender, 2001 g.f.). Geological-engineering mapping at a
studies come into importance. New important environmental and geological as-
scale of 1:25,000 was carried out in the urban area (Solovyova, 1984; Dmitriev,
pects of urban studies have been reflected in the work of NITsEB RAS (V.M.
1989).
Pitulko, V.I. Gorny, E.J. Yakhnin), Mining Institute (Dashko, 2003; Dashko,

2008); PGO Sevzapgeologia (E.Yu. Sammet, B.G. Dvernitsky, L.D. Nasonova,
V.A. Yaduta (Sammet, 1998) and Russian Geoecological Centre (A.N. Potiforov,
A.V. Gorky and others). Particular attention is paid to the problems of under-
ground geological space, its environmental status, activation of natural and tech-
nogenic processes and phenomena.
Since 2004, in accordance with amendments introduced by Federal Law 122-FZ
of 22.08.04 to the RF Law "On Subsoil", St. Petersburg, a RF constituent entity, is
entitled to manage the territorial archive of geological information (geological
fund), to grant subsoil areas for use, to arrange licensing and control of subsoil
use. The Committee for Nature Use, Environmental Protection and Ecological
Safety of St. Petersburg started the organization of the territorial archive of geo-
logical information.
By request of the Committee, investigations of littoral zones of the city have been
implemented by FGUP VSEGEI (M.A. Spiridonov, D.V. Ryabchuk, V.A. Zha-
moida, S.F. Manuilov and others) and the FGUP NIIKAM (S.V. Viktorov, L.L.
Sukhacheva, E.I. Kildyushevsky), monitoring of exogenous geological processes
and groundwater by FGUP Mineral (N.B. Filippov, A.V. Gerasimov, D.N. Dmi-
triev, S.E. Zubarev, G.B. Savenkova and others), and monitoring of soil by the
Russian Geoecological Center (A.N. Potiforov, A.V. Gorky and others).
Most of the geological data of the territorial geological archive have been digi-
tized; it is actively used in the Research and Information Complex “Ecological
Certificate of St. Petersburg” of the Committee for Nature Use, Environmental
Protection and Ecological Safety of St. Petersburg.

Fig. 2.3 Map of Quaternary deposits of Leningrad. Fragment (Krasnov et al, 1995)

Fig. 2.4 Historical maps of European Russia with map of St. Petersburg (Geolcom - TsNIGRI - VSEGEI, 2006)
7
2.2. History of geological investigations of the sea floor in the eastern fundamentally new approach to the exploration of the geological structure and
Gulf of Finland, Neva Inlet, reservoirs and streams of St. Petersburg bottom relief, both in the site of the grandiose water control structure, and in adja-
cent areas of the Neva Inlet and its shores.
First extant information concerning investigations of the relief and “bottom
ground” of the Neva Inlet are connected with events of the Northern War, con- A vast body of geological, geomorphologic and geoenvironmental data on the
struction of St. Petersburg and fortifications designed to protect the city from the Neva Inlet in the area of the Flood Protection Barrier construction was collected
sea. In 1703, Peter the Great personally carried out sounding south of the Kotlin and summarized by ad hoc expert commissions of USSR Committee for Science
Island. Systematic sounding in the Neva Inlet in the early eighteenth century was and Technology (1978) and the USSR Academy of Sciences (1989).
made by Vice-Admiral K.I. Cruis and Captain E. Lein. Since 1740s “sea depth
At one of the most recent stages of the geological study of the Neva Inlet (1978-
measurements from the Neva estuary to Kronshtadt” were led by Captain Aleksey
2003) VSGEI geologists obtained the present-day data on offshore and onshore
Nagaev. First large-scale bathymetric maps of the Neva Inlet published in 1742,
sediments. In 1987-1989, genetic typification of sediments of the Neva Inlet was
1750 (Fig. 2.5) and 1768 were compiled under his supervision; he described for
carried out, existing conditions of sedimentation were described, and lithological,
the first time the coast of the Neva Inlet for the pilot chart (St. Petersburg. 300
lithofacies and geochemical maps at a scale of 1:100,000 were compiled (Butylin,
years in the plans and maps, 2002; RGA VMF , 1331-4-281; RGA VMF, 1331-4-
1991). In 1991-1993, geoecological studies were carried out in south-eastern part
302).
of the Neva Inlet. In 1994, the geological survey on the shelf at a scale of
During the eighteenth-nineteenth centuries, reliable and comprehensive soundings 1:200,000 in the eastern Gulf of Finland and Neva Inlet was completed (Moska-
were carried out by the Hydrographic Department of the Navy Ministry. Since lenko, 1994 g.f.). In 1993-1995, geoecological (environmental and geological)
mid-eighteenth, all hydrographic surveys were accompanied by schematic de- monitoring was set up in the Neva Inlet (Spiridonov, 2002) that allowed more
scription of the “ground”. The earliest extant hydrographic and hydrological jour- precise identification of lithological composition of the Neva Inlet sediments, re-
nals containing such descriptions date back to the year 1751 (RGA VMF, 913-1- vealing basic distribution patterns of different facies types of surface sediments
79). The Instructions of the Director of the Hydrographic Depot at the Chief Mari- and trends in their evolution. Main techogenic facies environment was identified
time Headquarters Major-General F.I. Schubert “Surveys of the Baltic Sea in and mapped (Geoecological Atlas ..., 2002). Ecogeological studies of the Neva
1829” contain the requirement of logging to indicate at each point the depth (ac- River and other inland reservoirs and streams of the city were conducted at the
cording to leadline or foot rule data), the ship's location, as well as the “ground same time (E.N. Nesterova, Yu.P. Kropachev).
quality”" (RGA VMF, 402-1-248). Since 1860, such information as stone, sand,

fine sand, silt, gruss appeared on navigation charts (RGA VMF, 1331-4-333;
1331-11-514; 1331-7-532).
In 1836, the Committee for the construction of the Fort “Alexander I” decided to
study the geological structure of the bottom of the site. "To this end, casing pipes
drilled in the middle of wooden piles were drove. The ground obtained from these
pipes showed that the upper part of the bottom was covered with pure sand to a
depth of 2.1 m, underneath there was a layer of muddy attenuated clay, and below
at a depth of 9-10 m from the zero water level, solid continental clay” (Razdolgin,
1988). Further geological investigations of the Gulf floor were carried out during
construction of various fortifications, the St. Petersburg port, and maritime chan-
nel (Zhurukhin, 1894), deepening of navigational channels, and under the project
of the railway between St. Petersburg and Kronshtadt across Lisy Nos. In 1885-
86, 30 test wells were drilled in the area of the Galerny Fairway within the 10-m
isobath (Pel, 1888).
Thus, considerable amount of engineering and geological data on the Neva Inlet
was accumulated by the mid-nineteenth. E.I. Tillo, in his report to the Commis-
sion for the discussion of flood protection measures in the capital presented eight
projects of protective constructions published by Engineer-Lieutenant Colonel V.
Kipriyanov in the journal of the Ministry of Means of Communication in 1858
(Kipriyanov, “Critical Review of projects to protect St. Petersburg from flood”).

One of the projects drawn up by Major-General Federico Bazen, resembles that Fig. 2.5 Map of the Gulf of Finland compiled by A.I. Nagaev. Fragment. 1750
being accomplished at present (Fig. 2.6).

In 1911, A.A. Inostrantsev studied Quaternary deposits of 559 m long to a depth
of 18.9 metres, outcropped during the construction of a dry dock in the Kronsh-
tadt Port (Inostrantsev, 1912). Inostrantsev stratified and described in detail the
section, gave its genetic characteristics, investigated the petrographic composition
of glacial deposits occurring at the base.
More active geological surveys of the Neva Inlet took place during first decades
of the twentieth century. In 1920-1924, hydrochemical, hydrobiological, and hy-
drological studies were carried out under the supervision of K.M. Deryugin. Gra-
nulometric types of surface sediments were identified in ten main observation
stations and 40 dredging points, and granulometric (mechanical) analysis of
ground samples was made for the first time (Deryugin, 1923, 1925).
In 1928-1929, 13 wells were drilled between Oranienbaum and Kronshtadt and 10
wells between Kronshtadt and Lisy Nos under the project of building “guard dams
that could protect Leningrad from flooding”. Then mechanical (granulometric)
analysis and examination of physical properties (coefficient of plasticity, moisture
content, specific gravity, porosity) of 417 samples was made. Geological sections
of the Neva Inlet sediments to a depth of 12 m were first constructed (Rosen,
1930).
The Department for Port Investigations of the Baltic Sea (Baltportiz) was orga-
Fig. 2.6 Project of St. Petersburg floods protection compiled by Federico Bazen (second
nized in early 1919 and until 1929 it was responsible for geological engineering in quarter of the 19th century)
the Neva Inlet. The Department was used as a basis for the establishment of the
State Institute of Design and Research on Water-borne Transport (Giprovodtrans)
in 1931; till that time the Institute carried out a large cope of drilling in the littoral
zone.
In the late 40s - early 50s of the twentieth century, data on the composition of
soils and topography of the Neva Intel have been constantly replenished owing to
very effective activities of Goscomhydromet (S.V. Basova et al.), the State Hy-
drological Institute, Lengiprotrans and many other design and exploration enter-
prises. Case studies were carried out by the Leningrad State University (Logvi-
nenko, 1980, 1988; Barkov, 1986; Oknova, 1990), USSR Academy of Sciences
Institute of Limnology, VNIIKAM (Bychkova, 1998; Viktorov, 1998), Hydrome-
teorological University (Nekrasov, 1999; Frumin, 1999) and some other institu-
tions. These studies became even more active before starting the construction of
the Flood Protection Barrier. At that time, large scope of drilling at the dam site
were made by various enterprises, including Lengidroproektom, LenMorNII-
Proekt (S.L. Belenko, V.N. Ivanov and others).
In 1979, the resolution of the CC CPSU and USSR Council of Ministers “Con-
struction of the Leningrad Flood Protection Barrier” was adopted. It resulted in a
8
3. Geomorphology
Geomorphologic structure of the area occupied now by St. Petersburg and terrace. Accumulative formations, such as offshore bars, sandbars and secondary
adjacent sea floor is presented with the surface of Pre-Quaternary deposits, late- eolian sediments (dunes) are present here along with the abrasion forms.
and post-glacial relief and recent surface relief substantially transformed by
The greatest forms of the marine accumulative plain are sandspits located in the
technogenesis (Yakovlev, 1925; Markov, 1931; Malakhovsky, 1989, 1996;
city. In the area of the Vosstaniya Square along the Ligovsky Prospekt such
Auslender, 1998, 2001 g.f.; Spiridonov, 2002). In the first two instances there is
sandbars are greatly changed by technogenesis. Near Sestroretsk, the sandbar of
partially or completely buried relief and relief that underwent transformation
about 13 km long was transformed into a dune ridge.
during the geological evolution of the area.
Shoals, as local marine uplifts with relative altitudes of 1.5-2 m, are distinctive
Thus, main geomorphologic elements of the urban area, the Neva and Primorsky
geomorphologic anomalies of the Neva Inlet bottom.
lowlands, are related to the relief of the Pre-Quaternary substrate and have
elevations of 0 to 9 m in the south and 15 to 18 m in the north (Fig. 3.1). The lowest coastal plain, associated with the development of Limnic marine
basin, is represented by continuous band along the perimeter of the Neva Inlet
Pre-Quaternary (buried or semi-buried) relief corresponds to the stepped
and the eastern Gulf of Finland (in the city), including in the form of beaches.
(cuesta) structurally-denudation plain gently dipping southeastwards. This plain
The width of the beaches varies from minimal to 100-150 m with elevations of 0
is dissected by a network of deep erosion incisions (paleovalleys) with thalweg
to 2 m. Usually, in the rear part of the beach, one can often see a 1 to 2-m
elevations of up to 130-140 metres.
abrasion bench of the lowest Littorina terrace (Lisy Nos, Ulyanka). Recently,
Two EW paleovalleys that cross the northern and central parts of St. Petersburg another apparently Littorina terrace level was found at the bottom of the eastern
are the largest existing buried erosion incisions in the city area. One of them Gulf of Finland at a depth of 5.8 m.
extends from Blyukher Prospekt through the Muzhestva Square and the
Erosion-accumulative relief of the river genesis is present in the city only in the
Komendantsky Aerodrom to Lakhta and further through the central part of the
lower reaches of the Okhta, Izhora and Slavyanka rivers with terraces of 2.5 to
Neva Inlet along the northern coast of the Gulf of Finland.
3.5 m high. Smaller erosional forms cut slopes of the Yukki, Koltushy and
The second paleovalley extends from the Okhta River near the intersection with Vsevolozhsk uplifts.
the Shosse Revolyutsii through the Admiralty and Vasilievsky Island to the
Biogenic-accumulative (marsh) relief in the city is usually overlain by
Neva Inlet.
technogenic formations and only exposed in environs (Shushary, Pargolovo,
The most significant element of the buried relief is the Ordovician Plateau etc.).
(Izhora Hills). The slope of the plateau is well-defined in the present relief as the
Dune ridges are eolian landforms. They occupy the greatest area near
cuesta Baltic-Ladoga Bench (Glint) of up to 60 m high. In places, the edge of
Sestroretsk and Solnechnoe.
the glint is broken by glacial plucking (exaration) to form broad troughs, such as
in Krasnoe Selo. In general, the glint is shaped as a wide slope, but in places the Karst relief is developed within the Izhora Hills, in the Pushkinsky and
steepness of its slopes runs up to 10-15 º, such as in Pulkovo and Krasnoe Selo. Krasnoselsky districts.
Part of the urban area and the adjacent sea floor are situated on the Cis-Glint The coast relief of the city and the “St. Petersburg Seafront” is very diverse; it is
Lowland (depression). united in several genetic units caused by specific geo- and hydrodynamics in the
littoral zone.
In the Neva and Cis-Glint lowlands there are massifs of hilly moraine (glacial)
relief that underwent transformation under the influence of erosion, mainly by In term of classic geology, the Neva River has no delta. After outrush of Ladoga
the waters of the vast late-glacial basin called the Baltic glacial lake. Fragments waters via pra-Mga and pra-Tosna paleovalleys (about 2.5 ky) water flows cut
of ridges of terminal moraine located as “chains” or parallel elongated forms through the marine terrace to form branches resembling a delta lobe.
limiting the edge of the glacier tongue exist in the north-western part of the area.
Technogenic relief is common in the city and very diverse (depressions, open
The so-called “pressure moraines”, known near the Duderhof Heights are a pits, channels, hollows, filled-up and aggradational areas, waterways, etc.). A
special kind of marginal glacial accumulative deposits (Greyser, 1980). typical example is the southwestern part of the city, as well as the Vasilievsky
Island, the Dekabristov Island, and Lakhta.
Moraine (glacial) plain with traces of abrasion (erosion) is located as a hilly
surface in the vicinity of Gorelovo, Pulkovo, and Pushkin.
Along the periphery of the more elevated Primorsky plain there is (northern
environs and the Kurortny District) glacioaqueous group of relief types and
forms such as kame relief (undulating land) from 25 to 48 m high.
Most typically, this relief is presented as the Toksovo, Yukki and Koltushy hills
with the elevation of up to + 70 m and more.
Relatively small areas of the lacustrine-glacial plain with the most distinct
Vsevolozhsk Hills adjoin the Neva Lowland.
Formation of the lacustrine-glacial plain is associated with the activities of a
vast freshwater pool known as Baltic glacial lake. In the studied areas, in the
Postglacial time this pool occupied (about 10 thousand years ago), the Gulf of
Finland basin and adjacent lowlands, including cis-Glint and Neva lowlands, to
the level of + 45 - + 50 m.
The coastal line of the basin is almost everywhere marked in relief as an
abrasion (erosion) bench of 20-35 m high having a gradient of 20-25%, e.g.
along the Primorsky highway in the vicinity of the Chernaya Rechka area
(Kurortny District)
Plane-plain steps of lacustrine-glacial terraces successively descend to the Gulf
of Finland and the Neva River. Terraced levels are combined with littoral
landforms such as spits and offshore bars. Some of the most common landforms
of this genesis have their own names, e.g., Lesnovsky (15 m high), Sosnovsky
(up to 25 m high) and Murinsky (up to 35 m high) terraces.
Lowlands, presented as the marine terraced plain, were formed from the Middle
Holocene (8-5 ky) by repeated sea-level rises (transgression), and followed
lowering (regression) in the Yoldia Sea, Ancylus Lake, and Littorina and
Limnic seas during the age interval known as postglacial period.

The relief of marine origin resulted from discontinuous regression of the

Littorina Sea. Its littoral zone, best-defined as a terrace, can be considered as a Fig. 3.1 Orographic map of the city and its environs
peculiar geomorphologic “referring mark” of St. Petersburg. The bench of this

terrace is the best traced from Polyustrovo toward the Kushelevka railway
station, then from the park of the Forest Engineering Academy along the
Finland railway to the Udelny Park. Areas and benches of the terrace from 5 to
10 m high are observed near Kolomyagy, along the Prospeckt Narodnogo
Opolchenia, in Ligovo and Avtovo. Marine terraces strongly altered by
technogenesis are fragmentarily recorded in the middle reach of the Fontanka
River, near the Anichkov Bridge, Shpalernaya Street, and Smolninskaya
Embankment. Terraced levels of intermediate height evidence the intermittent
nature of the regression. The Lakhta marsh and the swamp in the northern part
of the Sestroretsky Razliv are the most extensive areas of the low Littorina
9