Gentrification in the Central Zone of Medina, Saudi Arabia

330 Pages·2017·11.49 MB·English

Gentrification in the Central Zone
of Medina, Saudi Arabia

Thesis submitted for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
at the University of Leicester

By
Hanadi Alharbi

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY
UNIVERSITY OF LEICESTER
February 2018
Gentrification in the Central Zone
of Medina, Saudi Arabia

Hanadi Alharbi

Abstract

The past fifty years have seen increasingly rapid advances in urbanization and
development in Saudi Arabia. Medina is a Saudi city; it is the second most significant
holy place after Mecca for all Muslims worldwide because it encompasses the Prophet’s
Mosque and the grave of the prophet of Islam, Mohammed. The central research aim of
the thesis is to examine whether that redevelopment that has taken place in Medina
between the 1970s to 2000s should be viewed as gentrification. The central zone of
Medina was identified as a case study for this research. Qualitative mixed-methods
research involving structured interviews and content analysis of archival data were used
to investigate redevelopments in the central zone of Medina. A semi-structured interview
was conducted with elite interviewees - officials and developers - and the non-elite, who
are the displaced residents of the central zone of Medina.
The main findings of this study show that what has happened in central zone of Medina
since the 1970s to the 2000s, when the redevelopment project was completed, constitutes
new build gentrification. New build gentrification in the central zone of Medina is
oriented towards tourism, as led by individual investors and real state dealers in the 1970s
and 1980s and by the central state in the 1990s and 2000s. It was also shown that the
touristic gentrification in new build form, which is also taking place in central Medina,
has resulted in the full impact of displacement. This result has particular significance with
respect to the global debates regarding gentrification research, in that gentrification in the
Global South, including the Middle East, occurred simultaneously with that of the Global
North. The findings and contributions of this thesis show that gentrified central Medina
is a new story of gentrification coming from a Middle Eastern Islamic city in Global
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South, as different than Global north context due to a number of issues such as being the
fastest-growing urbanization in the Global South, the type of political systems, decision-
making mechanisms in governmental bodies, and the cultural and social structures of
communities.

iii
Acknowledgments

In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious and the Most Merciful. All praises to Allah for
the strength and His blessing in completing this thesis.
Throughout the period of my doctoral study at the University of Leicester, there were
people who helped me. And now I would like to thank them, and express my gratitude
for their understanding and kindness.
First, I would like to thank my PhD supervisor, Professor Martin Phillips, for his useful
feedback that helped to the completion of this thesis. Dr Margaret Byron, my second
supervisor, who joined my journey last year – her scientific knowledge and moral support
were outstanding. My gratitude goes to my examiners Professor Loretta Lees and Dr
Lauren Andres for their ongoing critique and contributions that have greatly improved
the standard of this thesis.
Dr Gavin Brown was always supportive, and always listened to me. I would also like to
extend my thanks to Kerry from the Cartographic & Design Technician unit for her
feedback on my maps.
Thanks also to Charlotte Langley, the Postgraduate Research Administrator in
Informatics for her invaluable assistance, and my lovely friend in the Department of
Geography, Hannah Smith.
I am deeply indebted to my late husband, and to my father. I am grateful to my husband
who encouraged me to go abroad and pursue my dream of a PhD. I am also grateful to
my father, whose advice, wisdom, and encouragement has sustained and enriched my life
and my PhD journey.
I have been very lucky to have so many good friends in the UK and in Saudi Arabia.
Much gratitude goes to them all for their kindness, encouragement and support: Koulod,
Alex, Hanan, Sarah, Fordos and Aeshah.
My heartfelt thanks go to my mother. Though I have been away from her, her
unconditional love, support, and faith in me have motivated me to work harder and insist
on achieving my goal. My deepest appreciation goes also to my three boys: Mohammad,
Sultan, and Rayan, for their love, patience, and company during my study.

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Table of Content

ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................................... II
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................................... IV
TABLE OF CONTENT ....................................................................................................................... V
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................. VII
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................... VII
ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................................................... VIII
CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ............................................................................................ 1
1.1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 1
1.2. URBANISATION AND GENTRIFICATION: THE GLOBAL NORTH AND SOUTH DEBATES ...................................... 1
1.3. GENESIS AND RATIONALE OF THIS STUDY ............................................................................................. 8
1.3.1. Urbanisation and Revitalisation in Saudi Arabia ............................................................. 10
1.3.2. Medina’s Central Zone as a Single Case Study ................................................................. 15
1.4. THE AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ........................................................................................... 20
1.5. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................................ 20
1.6. OUTLINE OF THE THESIS .................................................................................................................. 22
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................ 24
2.1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 24
2.2. CONCEPTUALIZING GENTRIFICATION: EVOLUTION, DEFINITIONS, AND DEBATES ......................................... 25
2.2.1. The Evolution of Gentrification: Spatial and Temporal Transition .......................................... 29
2.2.2. Consumption and Production as Dynamics of Gentrification .................................................. 31
2.2.3. Debates Surrounding the Consequences of Gentrification ...................................................... 47
2.3. URBANIZATION IN THE MIDDLE EAST ................................................................................................. 55
2.3.1. Urban Development in Islamic Cities ....................................................................................... 57
2.3.2. Spectacular Urbanization in the United Arab Emirates ........................................................... 68
2.4. RELIGIOUS TOURISM, PILGRIMAGES, URBAN DEVELOPMENT, AND TOURISM GENTRIFICATION ..................... 76
2.4.1. The Impact of Pilgrimages and Religious Tourism in the Middle East ..................................... 80
2.5. GLOBAL GENTRIFICATION AND GENTRIFICATION IN ISLAMIC CITIES .......................................................... 83
2.5.1. Debate on Modern Comparative Urbanism ............................................................................ 86
2.5.2. The Debate on Gentrification in Islamic Cities......................................................................... 89
2.6. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................ 90
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................. 92
3.1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 92
3.2. RESEARCH QUESTIONS ................................................................................................................... 92
3.3. RESEARCH DESIGN: A QUALITATIVE APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF GENTRIFICATION IN SAUDI ARABIA ............ 95
3.4. A SINGLE CASE STUDY .................................................................................................................... 98
3.5. DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES ....................................................................................................... 99
3.5.1. Archival Data ......................................................................................................................... 102
3.5.2. Interviews .............................................................................................................................. 104
3.6. DATA ANALYSIS........................................................................................................................... 111
3.7. RESEARCHER’S REFLEXIVITY AND POSITIONALITY ................................................................................ 114
3.8. ETHICAL ISSUES ........................................................................................................................... 116
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3.9. CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. 117
CHAPTER 4: THE CASE OF MEDINA, SAUDI ARABIA: CONTEXTUALISATION ........................................ 119
4.1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 119
4.2. MEDINA’S LOCATION IN THE URBAN HIERARCHY OF SAUDI ARABIA ....................................................... 120
4.3. URBAN HISTORY OF MEDINA ......................................................................................................... 125
4.3.1. The Rise of Islam.................................................................................................................... 127
4.3.2. The Ottoman era ................................................................................................................... 130
4.3.3. The Saudi era ......................................................................................................................... 135
4.4. POLITICAL CONTEXT AND INSTITUTIONS IN URBAN PLANNING .............................................................. 147
4.4.1. Nexus Between Central and Local Governing Bodies: Urban Planning and Policies ............. 148
4.5. CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. 155
CHAPTER 5: THE EMERGENCE OF GENTRIFICATION IN MEDINA ......................................................... 157
5.1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 157
5.2. URBAN HISTORY OF MEDINA ......................................................................................................... 160
5.2.1. The Built Environment in the Central Zone ............................................................................ 161
5.2.2. Heritage Housing ................................................................................................................... 165
5.2.3. The Prophet’s Mosque ........................................................................................................... 171
5.2.4. Ahwash as a Residential Space Unit ...................................................................................... 172
5.3. THE REAL ESTATE DEVELOPMENT FUND .......................................................................................... 177
5.4. GOVERNMENT LAND GRANT PROGRAMME ...................................................................................... 181
5.5. ENDOWMENTS ........................................................................................................................... 187
5.6. CITY CENTRE REDEVELOPMENT AS GENTRIFICATION IN 1970S AND 1980S ............................................ 195
5.8. CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. 201
CHAPTER 6: 21ST CENTURY GENTRIFICATION IN MEDINA: 1990S TO 2000S ........................................ 204
6.1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 204
6.2. THE PHYSICAL TRANSFORMATION OF THE CENTRAL ZONE ................................................................... 206
6.2.1. New Features of the Central Zone ......................................................................................... 207
6.3. THE SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION OF THE CENTRAL ZONE ....................................................................... 220
6.4. STATE LED GENTRIFICATION: THE NEED FOR DEVELOPMENT OR THIRD-WAVE GENTRIFICATION ................. 221
6.4.1. The Role of Government ........................................................................................................ 224
6.4.2. Taiba Company as a Government-Granted Monopoly .......................................................... 234
6.5. A CASE FOR TOURISM GENTRIFICATION ........................................................................................... 238
6.6. CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. 243
CHAPTER 7: THE IMPACT OF GENTRIFICATION: DEVELOPMENT AND SANITATION ............................ 245
7.1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 245
7.2. GENTRIFICATION-INDUCED DISPLACEMENT ...................................................................................... 246
7.2.1. Tracking Displaced Residents of the Central Zone................................................................. 247
7.3. DISPLACEMENT FROM THE CENTRAL ZONE ....................................................................................... 249
7.3.1. The Characteristics of the Displaced Residents ..................................................................... 261
7.4. CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. 265
CHAPTER 8: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE ................................. 266
8.1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 266
8.2. SUMMARY OF THESIS ................................................................................................................... 267
8.3. CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE: GENTRIFICATION AND DISPLACEMENT ................................................ 275
8.5. LIMITATION OF STUDY .................................................................................................................. 278
8.6. FUTURE RESEARCH ...................................................................................................................... 278
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BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................................. 280
APPENDIX A: SAMPLE DETAIL AND ARCHIVAL DATA ......................................................................... 309
APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW PLANNERS AND OFFICER ............................................................................ 312
APPENDIX C: INTERVIEW EX-RESIDENTS ............................................................................................ 313
APPENDIX D: INFORMED CONSENT SHEET ......................................................................................... 314
APPENDIX E: OLD AND NEW PHOTOS OF STUDY AREA ...................................................................... 315
APPENDIX F: RESEARCH TRIP AUTHORISATION ................................................................................. 322

List of Tables

TABLE 1: THE TWO PHASES OF DATA COLLECTION. .................................................................................. 101
TABLE 2: GOVERNMENTAL ARCHIVAL DATA USED IN THE STUDY. ........................................................... 103
TABLE 3: EMIRATES OR GOVERNORATES OF SAUDI ARABIA.(GASTAT, 2010) .......................................... 122
TABLE 4: POPULATION IN MEDINA REGION AND AVERAGE ANNUAL POPULATION GROWTH RATE (%) OF
MEDINA CITY COMPARED TO THE MEDINA REGION AND SAUDI ARABIA AS A WHOLE. SOURCE: MAKKI
(2013), GASTAT (1974, 1992, 2004, 2010). ..................................................................................... 147
TABLE 5: CLASSIFICATION OF HOUSING IN ALHARAM SUB-MUNICIPALITY IN 1990 (SOURCE: MRM 1990).
........................................................................................................................................................ 170
TABLE 6: SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT OF MEDINA IN THE EARLY 1980S (SOURCE: MRM, 1982). ........... 173
TABLE 7: NEIGHBORHOOD SIZE AND STOREYS ALLOWED. (SOURCE: MRM, 1999). ................................. 211
TABLE 8: FEATURES OF THE REDEVELOPMENT OF MEDINA’S CENTRAL ZONE. ......................................... 212
TABLE 9: THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF GROUNDSCRAPERS. (SOURCE: CARMON & FREEMAN,
2005). .............................................................................................................................................. 218
TABLE 10: FACILITIES IN THE CENTRAL ZONE. (SOURCE: ECDCZ, 1999). ................................................ 218
TABLE 11: TAIBA COMPANY’S PROJECTS. (SOURCE: ALEQTISADIAH, 2008). ........................................... 236

List of Figures

FIGURE 1: THE TRANSFORMED URBAN LANDSCAPE OF MAKKAH CITY. ...................................................... 12
FIGURE 2: THE TRANSFORMED URBAN LANDSCAPE OF MEDINA CITY. ........................................................ 13
FIGURE 3: THE LOCATION OF MEDINA REGION (SOURCE: MHE, 1999). ..................................................... 18
FIGURE 4: THE SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC STRUCTURES AND SEGMENTED LABOUR MARKETS IN THE URBAN
STRUCTURES IN UAE, DEVELOPED BY MUHAMMAD AND SIDAWAY (2012). ...................................... 71
FIGURE 5: FORMER AREA OF DISPLACED RESIDENTS. SOURCE: MRM, 1975............................................. 109
FIGURE 6: FORMER AREA OF DISPLACED RESIDENTS. SOURCE: MRM, 1988............................................. 110
FIGURE 7: MAP OF ADMINSTRATIVE REGIONS OF SAUDI ARABIA. SOURCE: MINISTRY OF HIGHER
EDUCATION, 1999. ........................................................................................................................... 123
FIGURE 8: MOROPHOLOGY OF MEDINA CITY. SOURCE: MAKKI,1985. ...................................................... 128
FIGURE 9: MEDINA IN 1914 BY BURCKHARDT. SOURCE: MOSTAFA, 1981. ............................................... 132
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FIGURE 10: STAGES OF URBAN GROWTH OF MEDINA.SOURCE:MAM,1999 AND MDA, 2017 .................. 138
FIGURE 11: THE CURRENT FORM OF MEDINA CITY IN WHICH 62 NEIGHBORHOODS ARE LOCATED AND THIS
STUDY IS SITUATED. (SOURCE: MRM, 2004) ................................................................................... 141
FIGURE 12: THE POPULATION TREND IN MEDINA, 1995-2014 (POPULATION CITY, 2015). ....................... 145
FIGURE 13: AN ILLUSTRATION OF HOW THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT OF MEDINA
ARE RELATED TO EACH OTHER IN TERMS OF POLICY MAKING FOR URBANIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT
(SOURCE: AUTHOR). ........................................................................................................................ 151
FIGURE 14: TWO VARIOUS NEIGHBORHOODS IN THE CENTRAL ZONE OF THE OLD CITY OF
MEDINA.SOURCE:KAKI COLLECTION ............................................................................................... 162
FIGURE 15: THE TYPICAL LAYOUT OF A MEDIEVAL ISLAMIC CITY. SOURCE: ATASH (1993:351). ............. 164
FIGURE 16: SOME OF THE HERITAGE HOUSING IN THE OLD CITY OF MEDINA.SOURCE:ALMAGAMSI
COLLECTION..................................................................................................................................... 166
FIGURE 17: THE ROSHAN APPEAR IN THE FIRST FLOOR OF AN OLD BUILDING. .......................................... 167
FIGURE 18: PHYSICAL FORMATION OF THE SOUTH-WESTERN AREA OF MEDINA’S CITY CENTRE IN
1985.SOURCE:KAKI COLLECTION .................................................................................................... 168
FIGURE 19: VIEW TO THE NORTH-WEST OF MEDINA’S CENTRE IN 1985. ................................................... 169
FIGURE 20: HERITAGE AND CONTEMPORARY BUILDINGS IN 1985. ............................................................ 170
FIGURE 21: A NEW SUBURB (SULTANA ROAD) IN 1982. ........................................................................... 176
FIGURE 22: THE GRADUALLY CLEARANCE PROCESS OF THE HISTORIC FABRIC AROUND THE PROPHET’S
MOSQUE SINCE 1910 SOURCE:(BIANCA 2000) ................................................................................. 197
FIGURE 23: IMAGES OF THE AREA AROUND THE PROPHET'S MOSQUE, SHOWING THE DEMOLISHMENT OF THE
AHWASH. ......................................................................................................................................... 205
FIGURE 24: CENTRAL ZONE OF MEDINA. SOURCE: MRM, 1999. .............................................................. 208
FIGURE 25: BEDDAH NEIGHBOURHOOD IN THE CENTRAL ZONE OF MEDINA. ............................................ 209
FIGURE 26: ALMANAKAH NEIGHBOURHOOD IN THE CENTRAL ZONE OF MEDINA. ..................................... 210
FIGURE 27: BANI KODRAH NEIGHBOURHOOD IN THE CENTRAL ZONE OF MEDINA. ................................... 210
FIGURE 28: ALNAQAH NEIGHBOURHOOD IN THE CENTRAL ZONE OF MEDINA. .......................................... 211
FIGURE 29: TASKS OF TWO ACTION COMMITTEES FOR DEVELOPING CENTRAL ZONE OF MADINAH 1990. . 227
FIGURE 30: OIL PRICE IN 1985 DURING THE MOSQUE PROJECT. ................................................................ 229
FIGURE 31: TWO FIVE-STARS HOTELS IN NEW DEVELOPMENT IN CENTRAL ZONE. ..................................... 241
FIGURE 32: ALNUZHAT HOSH WAS LOCATED TO THE WEST OF THE PROPHET’S MOSQUE. ........................ 247

Abbreviations

BOE Bureau of Experts at the Council of Ministers
GASTAT General Authority Statistic
MDA Media Development Authority

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Chapter 1
Background to the Study

1.1. Introduction
Within the context of gentrification as an arguably global process, this study seeks to
examine the processes of urban development in the central zone of Medina, Saudi Arabia,
in order to establish whether they constitute gentrification or merely redevelopment and
urban renewal. Medina may be viewed as a prototypical Islamic city in that its urban
processes have been influenced by social, economic and political factors that are
themselves the products of, or affected by, the religion of Islam. It is also a city of
paramount importance to Muslims as the location of the Prophet’s Mosque, being the
second holiest city to Muslims after Makkah.

1.2. Urbanisation and Gentrification: The Global
North and South Debates
Recent debates in the gentrification literature have highlighted the globalization of this
phenomenon, suggesting there has been a generalization process throughout different
parts of the world as an urbanization or modernization strategy (Smith, 2002; Smith &
Derken, 2002), and the term gentrification itself, and indeed what it encompasses, has
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Chapter 1. Background to the Study

been subjected to considerable scrutiny. Scholars such as Lees (forthcoming), Lees et al.
(2015), Robinson (2006), and Roy (2009) have advanced an approach they call
‘comparative urbanism’, whereby urban processes in the Global South are not considered
to be purely replicas of those occurring in the Global North. Until very recently, cities of
the Global North such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, London, Paris and Tokyo,
amongst others, were taken as archetypal cities which served as models for all
urbanization processes. Discarding this approach, the aforementioned scholars stress the
need for a truly global urban study that renounces the hegemonic, colonial and euro-
centric views on urban processes which inherently fail to appreciate the unique
circumstances and strategies of the Global South. Thus, Lees (forthcoming) argues that
the latter should be investigated as an opportunity to learn and experience urban studies
from a different perspective. This study is therefore designed to address this issue with
regards to the central zone of Medina, where it investigates the impact of urban processes
on Medinan residents. In particular, it explores whether these urban changes, which have
affected the central area of the city referred to as ‘Medina core’ (Amirahmadi & Razavi,
1993), constitute gentrification rather than redevelopment, as based on the perspectives
of former residents as well as the government officials and planners involved in the
process.
Maloutas (2012) drew attention away from contesting the terminology itself to focus on
context-specific studies of the gentrification processes in different parts of the world in
order to explain the associated similarities and differences. This approach would offer
stronger evidence of the causes and outcomes of gentrification in the specific context
under investigation. An example of such country-specific research is that conducted by
Cybriwsky (2011) into the planning processes and policies that were involved in the
regeneration of Tokyo, Japan. Here, they found there had been a deliberate transformation
through the construction of state office buildings, high rise luxury apartments, up-market
retail shops, and arts facilities, all built for the wealthy. In contrast, Grange and Pretorius
(2014) studied Hong Kong, and found that displacement was an outcome of the urban
redevelopment and renewal there, although they had not planned to consider it. Similarly,
Nobre (2002), in a study of Pelourinho in Salvador da Bahia, Brazil, made a distinction
between urban renewal, rehabilitation and regeneration in the context of a historic
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