Genome Analysis in Eukaryotes: Developmental and Evolutionary Aspects

261 Pages·1998·14.983 MB·English

by  N. G. Brink (auth.), Dr. R. N. Chatterjee, Dr. Lucas Sánchez (eds.)

Genome Analysis in Eukaryotes
Developmental and Evolutionary Aspects
Genome Analysis in Eukaryotes
Developmental and Evolutionary Aspects
R.N. Chatterjee
L. Sanchez
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH
EDITORS
Dr. R.N. Chatterjee
Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta
Calcutta-700 073, India
Dr. Lucas Sanchez
Cenrtro Dr Investigaciones Biologicas (CSIC)
Velaquez, Madrid, Spain
Copyright © 1998 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
Originally published by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York in 1998
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical. Photocopying. recording or otherwise. without the prior
permission of the publisher
Exclusive distribution in North America (including Canada and Mexico).
Europe and Japan by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH
All export rights for this book vest exclusively with Narosa Publishing House.
Unauthorised export is a violation of Copyright Law and is subject to legal action
ISBN 978-3-662-11831-3 ISBN 978-3-662-11829-0 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-11829-0
Preface
The early development of different animals is extremely diverse with great
variability in cell numbers and size, in rates of development, in cell lineage
patterns etc. Differences and similarities in developmental strategies among
organisms are stably transmitted in generation after generation. This is so
because of the genetic control of developmental processes. Thus, it is the
genes and their interactions that we should look for the underlying rules
that govern development. These rules started to be understood through the
genetic and molecular biology analyses of developmental processes in different
organisms. Consequently, a comprehensive view about the mechanisms of
how organisms are designed and built is emerging in recent years. In spite
of the variability of developmental processes, some common genetic ·rules
controlling these processes appear to be in action. In addition, the relationship
between the processes of development in different types of embryos is a
topic of great relevance to evolutionary genetics.
The present volume focuses on an wide spectrum of topics ranging from
!;ell cycle regulation to development and evolution. This book starts with an
article of control of cell cycle proliferation during animal evolution and
development by N.G. Brink (Chapter 1) showing how cell cycle proteins
interact with the genes in different animals and the evolution of the cell cycle
system in a multicellular organisms. Differentiation in Athalia rosae and
Bombyx mori has surprising about to tell us about developmental patterns in
the organism other than Drosophila. We also received very useful reviews
of chapters from Laurie Tompkins, Pedro Santamaria, Roland Rosset, Pedro
P. L6pez, Begona Granadino, Michele Thomas-Delaage, Neel B. Randsholt
to include genetics of development, behaviour and evolution in Drosophila.
The sex determination mechanism in Sciara has been reviewed by A.L.P.
Perondini (Chapter 7). An evolutionary link between replication and the
establishment of repressive chromatin structures has been reviewed elegantly
by Francesco De Rubertis and Pierre Spierer (Chapter 10). Thus, we have been
fortunate to have extraordinary cooperation from the research community.
We appreciate the time and effort that these authors have invested in this book.
Our hope is that this book can guide beginners all the way through a
developmental aspect and evolution in animals and at the same time provide
established investigators with new ideas and thoughts.
Finally our appreciation are for Mis Narosa Publishing House, New
Delhi, for their efforts in bringing out this volume in the present form.
R.N. CHATTERJEE
LUCAS SANCHEZ
Contributors
N.G. Brink
School of Biological Sciences. The Flinders University of South Australia, Adelaide,
Australia.
R.N. Chatterjee
Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, 35 Ballygunge Circular Road,
Calcutta - 7000 19, India.
Francesco De Rubertis
Department of Zoology and Animal Biology, University of Geneva, 30 quai Emest
Ansermet, CH-1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland.
K.P. Gopinatban
Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore - 560012, India.
Begoiia Granadino
Centro de Investigaciones Biol6gicas, Velazquez 144, 28006 Madrid, Spain.
Masatsugu Hatakeyama
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Kobe University, Nada, Kobe 657, Japan.
Omana Joy
Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore - 560012, India.
Pedro P. Lopez
Centro de Investigaciones Biol6gicas, Velazquez 144, 28006 Madrid, Spain.
Kugao Oishi
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Kobe University, Nada, Kobe 657, Japan.
A.L.P. Perondini
Departamento de Biologia, Instituto de Biociencias, Universidade de Sao Paulo,
C. Postal 11461, CEP 05422-970, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
Neel B. Randsholt
Centre de Genetique Moleculaire du C.N.R.S., F-91198 Gif sur Yvette Cedex, France.
Roland Rosset
Laboratoire de Genetique et Physiologie du Developement IBDM, Pare Scientifique de
Luminy, CNRS Case 907, 13288 Marseille, Cedex 9, France.
Lucas Sanchez
Centro de Investigaciones Biol6gicas, Velazquez 144, 28006 Madrid, Spain.
Pedro Santamaria
Centre de Genetique Moleculaire du C.N.R.S., F-91198 Gif sur Yvette Cedex, France.
Masami Sawa
Department of Biology, Aichi University of Education, Kariya, Aichi 448, Japan.
viii Contributors
Amit Singh
Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore - 560 012, India.
Pierre Spiere
Department of Zoology and Animal Biology, University of Geneva, 3D, quai Emest
Ansermet, CH-1211, Geneva 4, Switzerland.
Michele Thomas-Delaage
Laboratoire de Genetique et Physiologie du Deve)opement IBDM, Pare Scientifique de
Luminy, CNRS Case 907, 13288 Marseille Cedex 9, France.
Laurie Tompkins
Department of Biology, Temple University, Phiadelphia, Pennsylvania 19122, U.S.A.
Contents
Preface v
Contributors
VII
1. Control of Cell Proliferation During Animal
Development and Evolution
N.G. Brink 1
2. Maternal Information and Genetic Control of
Oogenesis in Drosophila
M. Thomas-Delaage and R. Rosset 28
3. Egg Maturation and Events Leading to Embryonic
Development in the Sawfly. Athalia rosae (Hymenoptera)
K. Oishi, M. Hatakeyama and M. Sawa 50
4. Developmental Aspects of Mulberry and Nonmulberry
Silkworm Species: A comparative study
K.P. Gopinathan, O. Jay and A. Singh 65
5. Early Events Associated with Sex Determination
in Drosophila melanogaster
L. Sanchez, P.P. L6pez and B. Granadino 98
6. The Development of Male- and Female-Specific Sexual
Behaviour in Drosophila melanogaster
L. Tompkins 120
7. Elimination of X Chromosomes and the Problem of
Sex Determination in Sciara ocellaris
A.L.P. Perondini 149
8. Mechanisms and Evolutionary Origins of Gene Dosage
Compensation
R.N. Chatterjee 167
9. On How the Memory of Determination is Kept and
What May Happen to Forgetful Cells
P. Santamaria and N.B. Randsholt 215
10. Operational Redundancy: An evolutionary link between
replication and the establishment of repressive chromatin
structures
F.D. Rubertis and P. Spierer 237
INDEX 251
Genome Analysis in Eukaryotes: Developmental and evolutionary aspects
R.N. Chatterjee and L. Sanchez (Eds)
Copyright © 1998 Narosa Publishing House. New Delhi. India
1. Control of Cell Proliferation During
Development and Animal Evolution
N.G Brink
School of Biological Sciences. The Flinders University of South Australia
Adelaide. Australia
I. Introduction
It is not the purpose of this chapter to review the cell cycle and the role of
cell division within this cycle since the task would be gigantic and in
addition most aspects of this complex cellular process have been extensively
reviewed by a number of authors in recent years. However, I will briefly
summarize the main molecular genetic controls which operate during the
cell cycle and accompanying cell division and then discuss how far these
control mechanisms have been conserved during the evolution of multicellular
animals. I will review the variations in this control process which have
occurred in a range of multicellular animals from simple marine invertebrates
to complex vertebrate systems, and will only make reference to the extensive
yeast literature (reviewed in Nurse, 1990; Forsburg and Nurse, 1991) where
it is relevant to this review. I will not consider plants as there are some
differences in cell division which probably arose early in evolution and do
not easily fit into a discussion of cell proliferation control in animals.
All multicellular animals commence development as a single celled zygote
following fertilization. This zygote divides many times to produce a mature
adult which may have as few as 959 cells as in Caenorhabditis elegans. to
as many as 1015 cells in most mammals. Although the origin of multicellular
animals is still a matter of debate, it is likely that they either arose following
cellularization of a multinucleate cytoplasm in a free swimming ciliate or
the association of free swimming flagellates into a colony followed by
subsequent diversification of these cells (see Hanson, 1977 for review).
Animals with two cell layers (diploblasts) arose from a single celled ancestor
whilst animals with three cell layers (triploblasts) either arose from these
diploblasts or independently from a single celled ancestor. Based on molecular
evidence, Christen et al (1991) suggest the latter alternative is more likely.
During late pre-Cambrian (about 680 million years ago) both diploblastic
and triploblastic forms probably co-existed side by side. They may have
separated from a common ancestor some 800 million years ago (reviewed
2 BRINK
by Conway Morris, 1993) although based on the evidence from the Burgess
Shales there may have been an explosion in diversity which generated all
major body plans around 570 million years ago (see Levinton, 1992; Gould,
1994 for discussion). Whatever, the temporal interrelationships between the
diploblastic and triploblastic animals, cell division and cell differentiation
are common to both. If these two groups arose from a common ancestor
and there was a sudden explosion in body forms giving rise to all the
present day Phyla, then cell proliferation mechanisms, which are highly
ordered genetically controlled processes essential for survival, are likely to
be shared by all animals indicating a high degree of evolutionary conservation.
The evidence supporting this will be reviewed in this chapter.
Dillon (1960) reported that nuclear organization during cell division was
established in unicellular ciliates except for the formation of astral rays
which are confined to metazoans. Kubai (1975) and Health (1980) have
extensively reviewed mitosis in single celled eukaryotes and find the basic
process of cell division is conserved although there is some diversity which
probably arose during the evolution of these cells from prokaryote ancestors.
In metazoan animals, cell division is initiated in the oocyte following
fertilization and many division cycles subsequently take place during the
cleavage stages of embryogenesis. Because cleavage cycles are rapid and
highly ordered, both spatially and temporally, they are excellent systems
for examining genetic control of the cell cycle. Several animal species
ranging across the phylogenetic tree have served as model systems in these
studies. In mammals, on the other hand, as it is difficult to isolate and
manipulate the early embryos, studies of the cell cycle usually involve the
use of cultured cells or cycling in the haemopoietic cell lineage (see
McConnell, 1991 for review). A brief description of embryonic cleavage
cycles in several animals is given in the following section.
II. Cleavage Cycles
Amongst multicellular animals in which cleavage patterns have been studied
in any detail, it appears that marine invertebrates (e.g. Arbacia,
Strongylocentrotus, Asterina, Ilyanassa and some other molluscs) as well
as nematodes (e.g. Caenorhabditis), have highly predictable and invariant
cleavage which results in groups of cells having specified fates by virtue
of their position (see Davidson, 1986). Davidson further describes cleavage
in vertebrate embryos (e.g. Xenopus) as variable due to specification of
particular blastomeres depending on their position within the embryo. This
also applies to Drosophila and other insects where cleavage is syncitiai.
The detailed mechanism of sea urchin cleavage has been discussed
elsewhere (see Horstadius, 1973; Cameron and Davidson, 1991 for reviews).
Cleavage is described as radial. The first two cleavage divisions are meridional
and at right angles to each other with the third division being equatorial
thereby producing eight equal sized blastomeres, an upper tier and a lower
Control of Cell Proliferation During Animal Development and Evolution 3
tier each containing four blastomeres. During the fourth cleavage the animal
quartet of cells (upper tier) each undergo a meridional division producing
a single layer of eight equal sized mesomeres. On the other hand, in the
vegetal quartet of cells, the division spindle forms off centre because of the
asymmetrically placed nucleus producing four larger macromeres on top of
four micromeres. This division is equatorial. The three cell types have
different developmental fates (Davidson, 1986). During the fifth cleavage
cycle all cells undergo an equatorial division. The mesomeres divide to
produce two tiers of eight cells and the macromeres yield two tiers of four
equal sized cells. However, in the micromeres the spindle is placed off
centre producing four large micromeres and four small micromeres with
these two groups of cells having different fates (Khaner and Wilt, 1991).
This division occurs slightly later than the other divisions. The seventh
cleavage is meridional producing an embryo with 128 cells. All division
cycles up to the tenth, when gastrulation begins, are synchronous, with S
(DNA synthesis) alternating with M (mitotic division) and with no distinct
gap periods (G1 or G2) separating them. Since spindles always form in this
manner it suggests that the cytoskeleton must respond either to some internal
or external cues to regulate spindle orientation. However, this orientation
is not necessary for normal development since application of pressure which
alters spindle orientations does not prevent normal pluteus larvae being
formed (see Horstadius, 1973).
In the starfish, Asterina, as well as the sea cucumber Synapta, the pattern
of cleavage is slightly different (Dan-Sohkawa, 1976; Dan-Sohkawa and
Satoh, 1978; Mita, 1983). The first three cleavages are similar to that in sea
urchins, the fourth division is meridional, the fifth equatorial with the plane
of subsequent divisions alternating up until the tenth when gastrulation
begins. All cells are of equal size. The ten cycles are synchronous and lack
gap periods. The cell cycle time is about 35 minutes.
In echinoderms, it has been proposed that cleavages are regulated by a
timing mechanism which is controlled by the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio since
half embryos begin asynchronous cleavages one cycle earlier (Mita, 1983).
Spiral cleavage is observed in case of molluscs. Here successive tiers of
cells in an embryo do not have their axis of division perpendicular or
parallel to the existing layer of cells, rather are acute angles generating tiers
of cells in spirals. This cleavage pattern is also common amongst annelids.
The limpet Patella vulgata illustrates the basic pattern of cleavage (van den
Bigelaar, 1977). After an initial lag period of about two hours following
fertilization, the egg divides to produce two equal sized blastomeres.
Subsequent divisions occur every 30 minutes until the fifth cleavage after
which cycles lengthen and become asynchronous because the group of cells
begin to differentiate. The third cleavage is asymmetrical yielding four
micromeres at the animal pole and four macromeres at the vegetal pole.
The third and subsequent cleavage divisions are radial. In the freshwater