General Chemistry

1157 Pages·2010·50.37 MB·English

by  Darrell Ebbing

G e n e r a l
C h e m i s t r y
N I N T H E D I T I O N
Darrell D. Ebbing
Wayne State University, Emeritus
Steven D. Gammon
Western Washington University
H O U G H T O N M I F F L I N C O M PA N Y
BOSTON NEW YORK
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Cover photo ©Philip Evans 2007
Credits:A list of credits precedes the index.
Warning:This book contains descriptions of chemical reactions and photographs of experiments that are
potentially dangerous and harmful if undertaken without proper supervision,equipment,and safety
precautions. DONOTattempt to perform these experiments relying solely on the information presented in
thistext.
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Library of Congress Control Number:2007932357
Instructor’s Annotated Edition ISBN-10:0-618-93469-3
ISBN-13:978-0-618-93469-0
For orders,use student text ISBNs ISBN-10:0-618-85748-6
ISBN-13:978-0-618-85748-7
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BBrriieeff CCoonntteennttss
Part One Basics of Chemistry 1
1 Chemistry and Measurement 1
2 Atoms,Molecules,and Ions 41
3 Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Equations 86
4 Chemical Reactions 124
5 The Gaseous State 175
6 Thermochemistry 223
Part Two Atomic and Molecular Structure 263
7 Quantum Theory of the Atom 263
8 Electron Configurations and Periodicity 293
9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding 328
10 Molecular Geometry and Chemical Bonding Theory 373
Part Three States of Matter and Solutions 418
11 States of Matter; Liquids and Solids 418
12 Solutions 478
Part Four Chemical Reactions and Equilibrium 523
13 Rates of Reaction 523
14 Chemical Equilibrium 580
15 Acids and Bases 623
16 Acid–Base Equilibria 652
17 Solubility and Complex-Ion Equilibria 699
18 Thermodynamics and Equilibrium 731
19 Electrochemistry 770
Part Five Nuclear Chemistry and Chemistry of the Elements 820
20 Nuclear Chemistry 820
21 Chemistry of the Main-Group Elements 866
22 The Transition Elements and Coordination Compounds 930
23 Organic Chemistry 968
24 Polymer Materials:Synthetic and Biological 1004
v
CCoonntteennttss
Essays xvii
Preface xviii
A Note to Students xxviii
About the Authors xxxvii
About the Cover xxxviii
Part One Basics of Chemistry 1
1
Chemistry and Measurement 1
An Introduction to Chemistry 2
1.1 Modern Chemistry: A Brief Glimpse 2
1.2 Experiment and Explanation 4
A Chemist Looks at The Birth of the Post-it Note® 5
1.3 Law of Conservation of Mass 6
1.4 Matter: Physical State and Chemical Constitution 8
Physical Measurements 13
1.5 Measurement and Significant Figures 13
Instrumental Methods Separation of Mixtures by Chromatography 14
1.6 SI Units 19
1.7 Derived Units 22
1.8 Units and Dimensional Analysis (Factor-Label Method) 25
A Checklist for Review • Media Summary • Learning Objectives • Self-Assessment and Review
Questions • Concept Explorations • Conceptual Problems • Practice Problems • General
Problems • Strategy Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems
2
Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 41
Atomic Theory and Atomic Structure 42
2.1 Atomic Theory of Matter 42
2.2 The Structure of the Atom 44
2.3 Nuclear Structure; Isotopes 47
2.4 Atomic Masses 49
2.5 Periodic Table of the Elements 51
Chemical Substances: Formulas and Names 54
2.6 Chemical Formulas; Molecular and Ionic Substances 54
A Chemist Looks at Thirty Seconds on the Island of Stability 54
2.7 Organic Compounds 59
2.8 Naming Simple Compounds 60
vi
Contents vii
Chemical Reactions: Equations 70
2.9 Writing Chemical Equations 71
2.10 Balancing Chemical Equations 71
A Checklist for Review • Media Summary • Learning Objectives • Self-Assessment and Review
Questions • Concept Explorations • Conceptual Problems • Practice Problems • General
Problems • Strategy Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems
3
Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Equations 86
Mass and Moles of Substance 87
3.1 Molecular Mass and Formula Mass 87
3.2 The Mole Concept 89
Determining Chemical Formulas 93
3.3 Mass Percentages from the Formula 93
3.4 Elemental Analysis: Percentages of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen 95
3.5 Determining Formulas 97
Instrumental Methods Mass Spectrometry and Molecular Formula 98
Stoichiometry: Quantitative Relations in Chemical Reactions 102
3.6 Molar Interpretation of a Chemical Equation 103
3.7 Amounts of Substances in a Chemical Reaction 104
3.8 Limiting Reactant; Theoretical and Percentage Yields 107
A Checklist for Review • Media Summary • Learning Objectives • Self-Assessment and Review
Questions • Concept Explorations • Conceptual Problems • Practice Problems • General
Problems • Strategy Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems
4
Chemical Reactions 124
Ions in Aqueous Solution 125
4.1 Ionic Theory of Solutions and Solubility Rules 125
4.2 Molecular and Ionic Equations 130
Types of Chemical Reactions 133
4.3 Precipitation Reactions 134
4.4 Acid–Base Reactions 136
4.5 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 144
4.6 Balancing Simple Oxidation–Reduction Equations 151
Working with Solutions 154
4.7 Molar Concentration 154
4.8 Diluting Solutions 156
Quantitative Analysis 158
4.9 Gravimetric Analysis 158
4.10 Volumetric Analysis 160
A Checklist for Review • Media Summary • Learning Objectives • Self-Assessment and Review
Questions • Concept Explorations • Conceptual Problems • Practice Problems • General
Problems • Strategy Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems
viii Contents
5
The Gaseous State 175
Gas Laws 176
5.1 Gas Pressure and Its Measurement 177
5.2 Empirical Gas Laws 178
5.3 The Ideal Gas Law 187
A Chemist Looks at Nitrogen Monoxide Gas and Biological Signaling 186
5.4 Stoichiometry Problems Involving Gas Volumes 193
5.5 Gas Mixtures; Law of Partial Pressures 194
Kinetic-Molecular Theory 198
5.6 Kinetic Theory of an Ideal Gas 199
5.7 Molecular Speeds; Diffusion and Effusion 201
5.8 Real Gases 207
A Chemist Looks at Carbon Dioxide Gas and the Greenhouse Effect 210
A Checklist for Review • Media Summary • Learning Objectives • Self-Assessment and Review
Questions • Concept Explorations • Conceptual Problems • Practice Problems • General
Problems • Strategy Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems
6
Thermochemistry 223
Understanding Heats of Reaction 224
6.1 Energy and Its Units 225
6.2 Heat of Reaction 227
6.3 Enthalpy and Enthalpy Change 230
6.4 Thermochemical Equations 232
A Chemist Looks at Lucifers and Other Matches 235
6.5 Applying Stoichiometry to Heats of Reaction 235
6.6 Measuring Heats of Reaction 236
Using Heats of Reaction 240
6.7 Hess’s Law 241
6.8 Standard Enthalpies of Formation 244
6.9 Fuels—Foods, Commercial Fuels, and Rocket Fuels 249
A Checklist for Review • Media Summary • Learning Objectives • Self-Assessment and Review
Questions • Concept Explorations • Conceptual Problems • Practice Problems • General
Problems • Strategy Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems
Part Two Atomic and Molecular Structure 263
7
Quantum Theory of the Atom 263
Light Waves,Photons,and the Bohr Theory 264
7.1 The Wave Nature of Light 265
7.2 Quantum Effects and Photons 268
A Chemist Looks at Zapping Hamburger with Gamma Rays 270
Contents ix
7.3 The Bohr Theory of the Hydrogen Atom 271
A Chemist Looks at Lasers and Compact Disc Players 274
Quantum Mechanics and Quantum Numbers 277
7.4 Quantum Mechanics 277
Instrumental Methods Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 280
7.5 Quantum Numbers and Atomic Orbitals 281
A Checklist for Review • Media Summary • Learning Objectives • Self-Assessment and Review
Questions • Concept Explorations • Conceptual Problems • Practice Problems • General
Problems • Strategy Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems
8
Electron Configurations and Periodicity 293
Electronic Structure of Atoms 294
8.1 Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle 294
Instrumental Methods Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) 296
8.2 Building-Up Principle and the Periodic Table 299
Instrumental Methods X Rays,Atomic Numbers,and Orbital Structure (Photoelectron
Spectroscopy) 304
8.3 Writing Electron Configurations Using the Periodic Table 304
8.4 Orbital Diagrams of Atoms; Hund’s Rule 308
A Chemist Looks at Levitating Frogs and People 310
Periodicity of the Elements 311
8.5 Mendeleev’s Predictions from the Periodic Table 311
8.6 Some Periodic Properties 312
8.7 Periodicity in the Main-Group Elements 318
A Checklist for Review • Media Summary • Learning Objectives • Self-Assessment and Review
Questions • Concept Explorations • Conceptual Problems • Practice Problems • General
Problems • Strategy Problems • Cumulative-Skills Problems
9
Ionic and Covalent Bonding 328
Ionic Bonds 329
9.1 Describing Ionic Bonds 329
A Chemist Looks at Ionic Liquids and Green Chemistry 335
9.2 Electron Configurations of Ions 336
9.3 Ionic Radii 339
Covalent Bonds 341
9.4 Describing Covalent Bonds 342
A Chemist Looks at Chemical Bonds in Nitroglycerin 344
9.5 Polar Covalent Bonds; Electronegativity 345
9.6 Writing Lewis Electron-Dot Formulas 347
9.7 Delocalized Bonding: Resonance 350
9.8 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 352
9.9 Formal Charge and Lewis Formulas 355
9.10 Bond Length and Bond Order 358
9.11 Bond Energy 359