General and Applied Entomology

543 Pages·2012·30.02 MB·English

General and Applied Entomology

CONTENTS
PREFACE \'11
I. InlrocillCliun
.) IllSclts and R('lalCd :\nimals
:~. Extatl;d AnatolllY or Ilheels
cf. :nl.ernal :\nallllll)' ,me! 1'11),siclio).!,y or Insl'CIs
:i. CrOIl'11t alld :\lelarliorpiJosis or Insects (")_)
6. I ns{'cl ConI 1'01 71
7. I nscCl icides 7H
H. The (:Iassific;llio)) of IIlSl~(,t.~
~L Subclass AplLTygota 11·1
Orders Tit ysall 11 t;) (Hri,l/iI'llIilcl, ....; ilvn[i.lh, Fil'l'I)/'al,l)
and Collcrnbola (Sprillg/ai/s)
10, Subclass Pccry~()ta II ~I
()rders Lpllell1cro(1lera (,\I((y/lie.I), adonala (/)mgort-
fli(·.\' (11Ic/ ])I/1/1.I(,([li('.I) , and I'lc('(lplt'ra C)'/IJ/II'/li('.I)
II. Orclers OnilopLcra (C()c/nollch('.I, GrrI.l.lhlJ!J!){'r.l, (;ric/{I'IS.
Aa/ydirls, alld Olhl'T.I) and Isoptcra (TI'l"lIIi/('.I) I ~ I
12. Orders Dermaptera (Lanl'ig.I), Embiidina (l:lIi1Jiiris) ,
Zoraplera (Zo)"{ljJlerons), COTToclcnlia (p.\()cid.,) alld
Thysan()ptcra (TMi/}s) l!:i~~
1:1. Orders ;\Ialluphaga (C/i('wiIlJ.!, LiCl') and Anoplura
(.Ill/chill,!!; Liu') IG·1
1,1 Order Ilell1iplera (T"(' Bugs) In
1:-,. Order HOll1optera (Aldliris, Scal(' !1I.secls, Leafho/J/)('l'S,
alld (JIliN;') 19H
1( i. Orders CoieoP'tTa (Ha l if'.\) and Slrcpsi plera (Slyin/lid.n 22K
17. Orders l\clIroplcra (J)o/)soll[lil'.\, Lacewings, Alii Liolls.
and Oillers) and ~'1cc()plera (SCUI pi()1I Fli('J) 2H!-J
v
vi CONTENTS
18: 9rdcrs Trich<?ptera _(Caddisf/irs) and Lepidoptera
" • (Moths, Skii'ilers, and Butterflies) 2DG
19.", t>rdcr Diptera (Flies) • . . ' :H~2
. J ' ..
20. Or~kr Siphop.apt.e.~~a. (Fleas) 4 :1:1
~1. Order HyineJ1()ptera (Sawflies, Allis. TVa.l/ls. Rf'('S, (/Ild
110
Olhe~0
22. Collecting, Mounting, and Prt's('J'ving- lnst'ct~
GI.OSSARY
A SEl.ECTED l)IBl.lO(;RAPJIY
JI'>DEX
T his textbouk \I"as written for students IH'gillllillg';t stlldy of t'nto
Illolog),. '1 he' studcnt, his inlcrest in aile! approach t(1 till' slIl>jt'n. ;llld
lhe tyre of inlorlllJlioll llimt mIrth \\'hilc to 'liIll han: hC{'1l kept
constalltly ill Illind ill the pr(,paration of the text. i\(ost students tak
ing the subject ilia), IH'\'t'!' han' il1ort' thall tltis OIH' l'OllrSt', T he Illust
illlpOrLant (1llcStioll i~ "\"h;tt suhjeCt matter slioilid I>e gin'n <Inc!
how sliould it be jlrt'~('lltedj" TII:s It",t is the rt'~ult of n]lll'(' th<ln :W
years of t("aching a C()IIr.~{' ill g(,lIeral illle! applied ('llt()lllology ;JIld
r('pn:'Sl'lIIS till' ;JIIIIIO)"S tll()\lgllts and \ i(''''s tilt' '1Ihj('('I,
(\J)
T Ii!:' autlior lias strivell HI \\'ril(' sil1lply and clearly. and has at
tl'lllplcd to present the subjcct LIS logically :t~ p()s~ihll'. Tltt, 11101'('
appn)\'Cd pllyl()gTtlC'tic arrallgeml'lll of natural groups lias Ilot always
been followed. 1)llt tht,), Inl\'e hcqll 'liLly been arranged !m' study tll1
tht, more sensil)l(' basis or h:ll>itJt and J1lct:l1l1orplwsis.
OIW must always keep in milld that t'ntoll1ology is tht' stlldy of
inscns- llicir recognitio11, hiolog-y. ;Incl mlltro!. Ct'ltaillly, til(' sllidy
of t axo!lol11), a!lci biolog)' of iI lSt'CI S i~ 1I10S1 i 111 porlanl for I he I)(:gin
ncr. 1\'t'Xt ill ilnpOnan{'T arc the applied pita~es or tite scicncc, It is
our IllOllght that morphology JTl(J physiology should be limited LO
only a \\'orking' kn(lwledge in an elelllcllt.ary tcxt.
T lte most effective teaching of ecol1omic cJ)tollwloRY can he done
along "'itll 1;IX()1l011lic alld iJiological stuclies, sinc(', at litis liJ1lt, il is
possible to tic conlrol to tlte biology and the taxonomic group of the
insect mOle ~alislacl<Jrily. ,\IOSI dClails (II insect c()l1trol are olllitted
bccall~e cOJJtrol mcasures vary so I1IllCh ill different parts of the (,OUIl
try that one IIlU t dt'J end largel Oil local recollll1lendations, Also,
much detailed information pertaining to d()~ag('s and applications of
in ccticicles may he found on the manufacturer's label. J'\at.uraJly, 11(1
textbook will fit the needs of every instructor. Adeqllate material has
been included to allow considerable latitude in the choice of subject
matter,
vii
viii PREFACE
The st.udy of insects IS a most fascinating science, and this book
attempts at every opportunity to arouse interest among- the students.
Althougl, many injurious insects have been discussed, it is certainly
not the desire 10 create the impression that all are harmflll. The
more important beneficial insects are stressed in their proper places.
Ralhn' sil1lple (lnd incomplete keys are given to the more imporlant
grollps, chidly for the purpose of aCfJuainting- the students with their
usc. Certainly, the student in his first course in entomology will not
prog-ress f(lr in insect taxonomy. A chapter is included on making
insect collectiolls to encollrage students to make collections and COll
tinlle their stllciies. A gleJssary is included to aid with technical terlllS.
i\ textbook in entomology of a general nature only dips lig'htly
into the vast amount of the .. ccumulated knowledge of the science. :\
select.ed bihliography is incillded as an ;,id to uoth teacher and Stll
dent. A numlJer of the references contain excellent hihliogT(lphies
which will ue of further aiel.
The subject material in this textbook has been taken from many
sOllrces. \Ve (Ire gratefld to all authors and research worker. from
whose works this IHaterial has iJeen drawn. T he author is indebted
to many pcoplt, for helpful criticisms and suggest iOlls. and for read
.J.
ing the manuscript. 1 especially ",ish to thank H . Reinhard, l'\. 1\1.
RalJdolph. J. C. (;aines. R. _I. Dicke, D. R. King, ~'1. A. Price, D. F.
Mart in, Ada Duncan, alld .Jo AnlJ 'Moss, T he wriu:r is g-ratef'ul to
.J.
Don Collins, C. O. i\()hr, (Inc! j\tfrs. "V . Dobsoll for help and sug
gestions wi t h i If ust ra t ions. 11 fttst.rat ions were loaned ()r perm issioll
was given for use of figures in the literature by a number or individ
uals and companies. Special thanks are dut' F. F. Knipling. L. S. Dil
lOll, Willialll W. Paul. I)rtKe B. Miller, (;. H. Cillt'. (;. F. Ferris,
.J. F. Cooper, P ..J . Reno, H. B. i\Iills, F. O. Essig, Marjorie i\litchell,
.I.
S . Carpenter. P. \\'. Oman. i\lina i\lax\\"ell, \\I. \V. Konkle, C. ,\ .
Bieberclorf. Marie Lonning. Gerald B. Spawn, Hans Nussbaum,
G. F. Knowlton. \\I. P. Bradley. C. F. Garner, F. i\I. Fuller, .John E.
Simlllons, Florence L. Batson, T. H. Mackintosh, and Blair Coursen.
V. A. LITTLE
Collegf' Statioll. Texas
Fclmlfny, 19'7
CHAPTER
I
INTRODUCTION
T he place thaI inS(YIS occupy in the world of li\'ing Ihings is impor
[;)111 as 1ll0S1 all plants and ilnimals (Ire affecled in .~()l1le \fay by Iheir
presence. l\'o other class of animals is so inlimalely involved in Ille
inlricacies and complexil ies of lhe hiological world as arc insecls.
They arc essentially lerrcstrial ill habital; and are dislributl'd frolll
Ihe permafrost line of the Arclic to Ihe icc cap of Ille Antarnic. and
from the mountain tops to tilt> deplhs of ('aVCTllS, Two-thirds or
more of all species 01' animals arc inserts, {\nd they arc probahly ex
cceded in nU111ber of individuals only hy Illicros{,(lpic forms or life.
Insects are an ancient race of animals which has persisled fot' Illil
lions of yC'{\rs, Through the processes (If evolution nature has su
perb Iy perfected them I hat I hey may SlI rvive under the most ad verse
condilions and in a divel'sity of environments. Nature has sllcceeded
in combining in thcmcertain advantageous characteristics, tlte com
bination of which is found in no other grollp of animals. An insect
is protected hy a suit of armor (exoskeleton) like knights or old.
Associated with th exoskeleton is remarkable mobility and small
ness of size. Tn addirion to these characteristics, insects possess a
unique and very efficient respiratory system. a varied and involved
biology, and t.he ability to partake of food in a diversity of ways.
ThIIS, in the insect world is found material worthy of man's best
efforts in study, and problems which challenge Ilim on every side.
Man's welfare is materially aITeeted in a multiplicity of ways by
insects. His body may be attacked, his food despoil d, and his dis
eases contracted in their feeding. Most of his stored possessions and
the house in which he lives are subject to insect damage. Field crops,
livestock, fruits, timber, and other agri ultural products suffer great
losses from the depredations of insects. Yet, man is also benefittd
2 GENERAL AND APPLIED ENTOMOLOGY
in a number of ways by their presence. Many are parasites or pred
ators of otber insects that are pests. They are useful in tbe pollina
tion of many plants. Insects are nature's scavengers and reduce plant
and animal matter to earth mold; they are a source of food for fishes
and wildlife, and the products of some are of value in industry. On
the basis of their relation to man, insects may be classed as either
harmful or beneficial; however, the status of many is uncertain be
cause their biologies are not adequately understood.
HARMFUL INSECTS
Insects and Public Health
When insect.s are considered on a world-wide basis perhaps they
are 1110st injurious to man as vectors of human diseases. Through the
ages millions of people have died of diseases transmitted by insect.s.
There are a number of insect-borne diseases, and these may be
transmitted in different ways. A few of the more illlportant may be
men tioned.
Malaria is one of the illlportaI1l diseases uf mankind. The disease
is most prevalent in tropical regions where it exacts its greatest toll
in human suffering and deaths. The disease is transJIlitted solely by
certain species of Allopheles mos juitues. Owing to improvement of
health standards and mosquito control measures t.he disease is rarely
found in the United States today.
Yellow fever is allother dreaded disease oC tropical and subtropi
cal regions which is l1Iosquit.o-borne. By means oC mosquito control
measures and the use of a protective vaccine the disease is kept in
check. Filariasis, dengue, and encephalitis are other diseases trans
mitted by mosquitoes.
The pestiferous hou e Hy has developed in the wastes of man and
his animals and t.hen persistently insisted upon sharing his food
since the human race was young. Becau e of its filthy feeding and
breeding habits it may transmit by mechanical means such diseases
as typhoid. dysentery, and diarrhea.
Fleas are transmitters of buboni plague and murine typhus of
man. Bubonic plague is the Black Death of the Middle Ages that
swept away millions of lives in Europe and Asia. Because of the
knowledge of the disease, its transmitters and hosts, it should never
again reach the propurtions o[ a plague in civilized countries.
INTRODUCTION 3
Louse-borne typhus is anot.her scourge of the human race. The
statement has been made that more people have died of this dis
ease than have been killed in all wars. Typhus epidemics have al
ways followed in the \\lake of \liars due 10 lowered standards of sani
tation and the crowding together of lllally people. This disease may
nO'lv be controIled. Other diseases transmitted by insects are men
tioned in the text with the discussion of their vectors .
.Even though certain insects may not transmit pathog-enic organ
isms, they may be pests through their stings. bites, and obnoxious
presence. Everyone is aCfluainted with tbe sting of 'rasps, bees, and
ants. Some caterpillars bear Ilettling hairs or spint's on their bodie'
which produce dermatilis and other symptoms when pressed against
the skin. Body fluids of Il1cloicl beetles contain a poisonous com
pound, cantharidin. which produces blisters. Assassin bup and oth
ers can inflict painful bites. Cockroaches with their nauseating odor
and ioalilsomc presence, pestiferollS g-nats. allts, and many other
insects arc nuisances of 110 mean ;mportance.
Insects and Agriculture
Plants and animals are alt.a('ked and injnred by insects in a num
ber oC ways. In addition to t.heir f(:'ccling-, discases may be transmit
ted by [hem. The LOlal loss produced by illsects 10 agricultural prod
ucts is extrcmely diH-icult to cstimate dllc to t.hc llIany variable and
colnplicated factors involved. Perhaps the tolal figure would reach
the stupendolls slim of sever(ll billions of dollars annually.
A few outstanding insect pests to crops arc mentioned. The vall
weevil produced such serious economic repercussions in the South
that a revolution in the methods or production of colton was
brought about. The European corn horer COSts the fanners milli ns
of dollars annually. Grasshoppers hilve plagued fanners in this coun
try since pioneer days. Plant lice, the chinch bug, the odling moth,
and others too numerous to mention have exacted a huge toll. of
crops.
Insects are important veClOrS of plant diseases. Plant lice, or
aphids, and leafhoppers in particular are involved in the transmis
sion of a large number of important virus diseases, some of which
are transmitted only by insects. Cucumber beetles are the only
known vectors of bacterial wilt of cucurbiLS. The Dutch elm disease
is spread by bark beetles.
Injury to livestock by arthropods is caused by their sucking blood.
6 GENERAL AND APPLIED ENTOMOLOGY
Insects as Pollinators
lnsects are invaluable in the pollination of plants. Some of the
higher plants are self-pollinated, but most are cross-pollinated.
Wind and insects are the chief factors in cross-pollination. Bees,
wasps, an.ts, bUllerH ies, beetles, Aies, and t.1l ri ps all render va I uable
service in the pollinat.ion of plants. "Vild bees ancl honey bees are
the most valuable pollinators. Honey bees are depended upon
mostly when the services of insect pollinators are needed in the pro
duction of cultivated crops such as clovers, alfalfa, apples, pears,
plums, and certain vegetables. SOllle plams, e.g., the yucca and the
Smyrna fig, are completely clependen.t lipan certain species of in
sects for pollination.
Other Ways in ,,vhich Insects Are Beneficial
Insects are an important source of food for many animals. The
more cOlllmon birds depend largsely upon insects as a source of food
and Lhey consume huge quantities of them, especially during I.hf'
nesting season. Insects stich as bloodworms and the nymphs of may
Hies are important as food fol' fresh-watel' fishes. Toads, frou-s, liz
zards, skunks, armadillos, bats, and other animals also depend heav
ily upon insects as a source of food.
Insects are sometimes referred to as n(lture's scavenger~. They are
of much aid in reducing both plant (lnd animal material to earth
mold. \"'ood-boring beetles, carpenter an.ts, termites, and other in
sects help reduce logs, limbs, leaves, and rela.ted materials to. hu
mus. MayAy nymphs and other aquatic insects feed on organic mat
ter in ponds and streams, and thus help prevent pollution o[ these
waters. Many insects aid in the elimination o£ animal wastes; how
ever, Aies which develop in su h material may do much gTeater
harm than good as disseminat.ors of diseases.
Certain insect products have considerable commercial value.
Honey has been a prized article of food since ancient days. There is
always a demand in industry for beeswax for making such products
as candles, polishes, and waxes. Silk is the product of the larva of
an insect, the silkworm. Although silk is replaced largely by syn
thetic fibers. its product.ion is still an imponant industry in some
parts of the world. The production of shellac is a means of liveli
hood for' a number of people, chiefly in Burma and India, Shellac
is obtained from the la scale insect.