Table Of Content

Gender, Politics and Land Use in Zimbabwe 1980–2012 00- introduction.indd 1 09/07/2015 02:47:47 This book is a product of CODESRIA Comparative Research Network. 00- introduction.indd 2 09/07/2015 02:47:47 Gender, Politics and Land Use in Zimbabwe 1980–2012 Onias Mafa Enna S. Gudhlanga Norman Manyeruke Ephraim H.M. Matavire John Mpofu Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa DAKAR 00- introduction.indd 3 09/07/2015 02:47:47 © CODESRIA 2015 Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa Avenue Cheikh Anta Diop, Angle Canal IV P.O. Box 3304 Dakar, CP 18524, Senegal Website: www.codesria.org ISBN: 978-2-86978-590-8 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any information storage or retrieval system without prior permission from CODESRIA. Typesetting: Alpha Ousmane Dia Cover Design: Ibrahima Fofana Distributed in Africa by CODESRIA Distributed elsewhere by African Books Collective, Oxford, UK Website: www.africanbookscollective.com The Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA) is an independent organisation whose principal objectives are to facilitate research, promote research-based publishing and create multiple forums geared towards the exchange of views and information among African researchers. All these are aimed at reducing the fragmentation of research in the continent through the creation of thematic research networks that cut across linguistic and regional boundaries. CODESRIA publishes Africa Development, the longest standing Africa based social science journal; Afrika Zamani, a journal of history; the African Sociological Review; the African Journal of International Affairs; Africa Review of Books and the Journal of Higher Education in Africa. The Council also co-publishes the Africa Media Review; Identity, Culture and Politics: An Afro-Asian Dialogue; The African Anthropologist, Journal of African Tranformation, Méthod(e)s: African Review of Social Sciences Methodology, and the Afro-Arab Selections for Social Sciences. The results of its research and other activities are also disseminated through its Working Paper Series, Green Book Series, Monograph Series, Book Series, Policy Briefs and the CODESRIA Bulletin. Select CODESRIA publications are also accessible online at www.codesria.org CODESRIA would like to express its gratitude to the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA), the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), the Ford Foundation, the Carnegie Corporation of New York (CCNY), the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD), the Danish Agency for International Development (DANIDA), the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Rockefeller Foundation, the Open Society Foundations (OSFs), TrustAfrica, UNESCO, UN Women, the African Capacity Building Foundation (ACBF) and the Government of Senegal for supporting its research, training and publication programmes. 00- introduction.indd 4 09/07/2015 02:47:47 Contents List of Abbreviations ix .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... List of Tables xi ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... List of Figures xiii ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... List of Plates xiv .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. Notes on Authors xv .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. Acknowledgements xix ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1. Background to the Study Introduction 1 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Background to the Problem 1 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... Land Politics in pre-and Independent Zimbabwe 3 ....................................................................................................... Statement of the Problem 8 .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. Clarification of Concepts 12 .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... Method of Investigation 14 .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2. Research Methodology Introduction 23 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. Research Design 23 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. The Study Area 24 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Geology and Vegetation 26 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Field Work 29 ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Ethical Considerations 31 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Conclusion 31 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 00- introduction.indd 5 09/07/2015 02:47:47 vi Gender, Politics and Land Use in Zimbabwe, 1980–2012 3. The Historical Context of Land in Zimbabwe The Political Economy of Zimbabwe 33 ...................................................................................................................................................... Land Ownership During the Colonial Era 37 ............................................................................................................................... Other Oppressive Native Practices 50 ................................................................................................................................................................... Exploitation of African Labour 50 ................................................................................................................................................................................. The Rhodesian Front Era 53 ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... Growth of Trade Unionism 1934–1950s 54 ....................................................................................................................................... The Liberation War (Second Chimurenga) and its Impact on the Land Question 55 ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ The Lancaster Agreement 58 ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ Change of Power Politics 60 ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. Socio-economic and Political Conditions in the First Decade of Independence 1980–1990 61 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... Reform of Agricultural Institutions 61 ............................................................................................................................................................... The Economic Background at Independence 64 ................................................................................................................... Conclusion 64 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4. Land Reform Programme Introduction 65 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. Basis for Land Reform Programmes 67 ............................................................................................................................................................. Goals of the Land Reform Programme 68 ................................................................................................................................................ Resettlement Programme Targets 69 ........................................................................................................................................................................ Resettlement Models 69 ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. Agro-ecological Regions 74 ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... Management of Areas of Origin 77 ............................................................................................................................................................................. Land Reform Changes 78 ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Comments on the First Phase of the Land Reform Programme 81 ....................................................... The Controller and Auditor General Audit of 1993 82 ...................................................................................... Entry Barriers to the Commercial Agricultural Sector 87 ................................................................................ Second Phase of the Pre-Fast Track Land Resettlement Programme 89 ....................................... Other Causes of High Demand for Land 93 ..................................................................................................................................... Fast Track Resettlement Phase 95 ..................................................................................................................................................................................... Achievements Under Fast Track 99 .............................................................................................................................................................................. The Impact of HIV/AIDS 106 ............................................................................................................................................................................................... Conclusion 107 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 00- introduction.indd 6 09/07/2015 02:47:47 Contents 5. Gender and Land Politics in Zimbabwe Introduction 109 ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Theories of Land and their Implications on Gender 109 ................................................................................. Gender-blind Theories 110 ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... Gender-sensitive Theories 111 ................................................................................................................................................................................................. Current Debates on Women and Access to Land and Other Resources 112 ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. Conceptualising Gender and Land Reform in Zimbabwe 113 ......................................................... Gender, Land Tenure and Land Reform in Southern Africa 114 ................................................ Gender and Land Tenure in Zimbabwe 122 ....................................................................................................................................... Women’s Activism and Land Tenure 133 .................................................................................................................................................... State Politics, Gender and Land Tenure 136 ........................................................................................................................................ Conclusion 137 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6. Presentation, Discussion and Interpretation of Findings Introduction 139 .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Biodata of Respondents 139 ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... Research Question 1: What was the Redistributive Nature of Both Resettlement Phases? 147 .............................................................................................................................................................................................. Research Question 2: How were Beneficiaries Selected for Both Phases? 151 .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Research Question 3: What were the Implementation Strategies in Both Phases? 153 .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. Research Question 4: To What Extent were Women Empowered Through the two Resettlement Phases? 164 ....................................................................................................................................... Research Question 5(a): What was the Impact of Both Phases on the Environment and the Ecosystem? 165 ................................................................................................................................ Research Question 5(b): What was the Impact of Both Phases on Food Security at Household Level (Impact on Livelihoods)? 171 .................................................................. Research Question 6: What were the Problems Faced by Beneficiaries? 177 ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Research Question 7: How has HIV/AIDS Impacted on Production in Both Land Reform Phases? 182 ................................................................................................................................................................................ Research Question 8: What has been the Fate of Farm Workers who were Displaced by the Land Reform Programmes? 191 ................................................................. Conclusion 193 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 00- introduction.indd 7 09/07/2015 02:47:47 viii Gender, Politics and Land Use in Zimbabwe, 1980–2012 7. Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations . Introduction 195 ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Summary of the Study 195 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Conclusions 205 .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. Recommendations 209 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. References 215 ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Appendices 225 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 00- introduction.indd 8 09/07/2015 02:47:47 List of Abbreviations AFC Agriculture Finance Cooperation AREX Department of Agricultural Research and Extension CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination CFSAM Crop and Food Assessment CFU Commercial Farmers Union COTTCO Cotton Company of Zimbabwe DDF District Development Fund DFID Department of International Development DLA Department of Land Affairs CESCR Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights EPZ Export Processing Zone FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation FTLRP Fast Track Land Reform Programme GAD Gender and Development GMB Grain Marketing Board ILO International Labour Organisation IMF International Monetary Fund LAMA Legal Age of Majority Act LRAD Land Redistribution for Agricultural Development LRRP11 Land Reform and Resettlement Programme Phase Two LSCF Large Scale Commercial Farms MDC Movement for Democratic Change NCA National Constitutional Assembly NGO Non-Governmental Organisation PFTLRP Pre-Fast Track Land Reform Programme 00- introduction.indd 9 09/07/2015 02:47:47 x Gender, Politics and Land Use in Zimbabwe, 1980–2012 PLAS State Purchase for Lease SAPs Structural Adjustment Programmes SLAG Settlement African Land Grant SSCF Small Scale Commercial Farm UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNECA United Nations Economic Commission for Africa WFP World Food Programme WID Women in Development WLLG Women and Land Lobby Group ZANLA Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ZANU PF Zimbabwe African National Union Patriotic Front ZIC Zimbabwe Investment Centre ZIPRA Zimbabwe People`s Revolutionary Army ZWD Zimbabwean Dollar ZWVA Zimbabwe War Veterans Association 00- introduction.indd 10 09/07/2015 02:47:47