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Hiroshi Ishiguro · Fabio Dalla Libera Editors Geminoid Studies Science and Technologies for Humanlike Teleoperated Androids Geminoid Studies ⋅ Hiroshi Ishiguro Fabio Dalla Libera Editors Geminoid Studies Science and Technologies for Humanlike Teleoperated Androids 123 Editors Hiroshi Ishiguro FabioDalla Libera Osaka University Osaka University Toyonaka,Osaka Toyonaka,Osaka Japan Japan ISBN978-981-10-8701-1 ISBN978-981-10-8702-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8702-8 LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2018934871 ©SpringerNatureSingaporePteLtd.2018 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpart of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission orinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilar methodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. 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Printedonacid-freepaper ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSingaporePteLtd. partofSpringerNature Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:152BeachRoad,#21-01/04GatewayEast,Singapore189721, Singapore Preface The first part of this book surveys the technologies involved in building a very humanlikerobot,orandroid.Theappearance,movements,andperceptionsofsuch an android must mimic those of a human, and thus require unique developmental techniques.Chapters1and2describehowtodevelopaveryhumanlikerobot.First, the android must have a very humanlike appearance. Body-part molds are made fromarealpersonusingshape-memoryfoam.Then,softsiliconskinsaremadefor the entire body using these molds. Covering the entire body with soft material is a uniquefeaturethatisquitedifferentfromthatemployedinexistinghumanoidrobots. The soft skin not only provides a humanlike texture for the body surface, but also allows safe physical interaction, that is, humanlike interpersonal interactions between real people and the android. The humanlike movements are produced by pneumatic actuators that are driven by highly compressed air. The high compress- ibility of air provides very flexible motions in the android joints without software control.Thisalsomakesthehuman–androidinteractionsmorehumanlikeandsafer. To generate humanlike body movements in the android, the motions of a human performer are measured by means of a motion capture system, and the measured movementsarecopiedtotheandroid.Peoplestronglyexpecthumanlikeresponsive behaviors when interacting with the android, because it looks very similar to a human.Itis,therefore,necessaryfortheandroidperceptualsystemtoobtainvarious information to produce rich interactions. However, cameras and microphones embedded in the androids body are not sufficient, as the range and type of obser- vations are restricted. To overcome this limitation, a sensor network is integrated withtheandroid.Multipletypesofsensor(suchascamera,microphone,floorsensor, andlaserrangefinder)areplacedintheenvironmentsurroundingtheandroid,thus endowing the environment with perceptive capabilities. This method allows the android to store a large amount of information on human activities and obtain contextual information. The mental state of the android can be defined based on contextualinformation,allowinghumanlikeresponsivebehaviortobeproduced.In the process of making the android more humanlike, we require knowledge about human behavior and interpersonal cognition; this is a novel approach to studying human natureby developing theandroid. Wecall this research frameworkandroid v vi Preface science, as explained in Chap. 2. Another approach for implementing humanlike behavior in the android is teleoperation by a real person. A human operating the androidfromadistancecanplayaroleinformingperceptions,decisionmaking,and motionandutterancegeneration.Wecanstudyhuman–androidinteractionspriorto developing a humanlike android using the technology of teleoperation. Teleopera- tion provides a novel telecommunication effect whereby the person operating the androidfeelsthatitishis/herownbody,whileasecondpersoninteractingwiththe operated android also feels it is possessed by the operator. That is, teleoperation worksasaroboticcommunicationmediathatcantransfertheoperator’spresence(or Sonzai-kaninJapanese)toaremoteplace.Theteleoperationsystemoftheandroid and its significance in android scienceare describedin Chap. 3. Robots operating in the real world must be able to understand, communicate with,andinteractwithrealpeople.However,human–robotcommunicationremains unnatural, and hence ineffective. Therefore, a very humanlike robot–an android– may prove to be the ultimate man–machine communication device. To create realismandavoidthe“uncannyvalley,”thisandroidrequiresrealisticbehaviorthat matches its realistic looks. The second part of this book describes methods for the automatic generation of humanlike motions (including body, facial, lip, and head motions) in the android. Chapter 4 describes methods for generating body movements. To generate humanlike body movements (gestural movements) in an android, the motions of a human performer are measured by means of a motion capture system, and the measured movements are copied to the android. Here, it is important that the three-dimensionalappearanceoftheperformershouldbetransferredtotheandroid. Thisisbecausethekinematicsoftheandroiddifferfromthehumanmusculoskeletal system, and existing methods of copying a human’s joint angles to that of an android are insufficient for generating humanlike movements. Chapter 5 describes a teleoperation system in which the lip motion of a remote humanoid robot is automatically controlled by the operators voice. In the speech-driven lip motion generation method, the lip height and width degrees are estimatedbasedonvowelformantinformation,sothereisnoneedtocreatespecific modelsfordifferentlanguages.Subjectiveevaluationindicatesthattheaudio-based method can generate lip motion that is more natural than vision-based and motion capture-based approaches. Issues regarding online real-time processing are also discussed in this chapter. Chapters 6 and 7 describe analysis and generation strategies for head motion. Head motion naturally occurs in synchrony with speech and may carry paralin- guistic information such as intention, attitude, and emotion in dialogue communi- cation. With the aim of automatically generating head motions during speech utterances, analyses are first conducted on human–human dialogue interactions to verify the relations between head motions and linguistic and paralinguistic infor- mation carried by speech utterances. Chapter 6 describes the analysis of motion-captureddataforseveralspeakersduringnaturaldialogues,includingintra- andinter-speakervariabilities.Chapter7describesheadmotion(noddingandhead tilting) generation models based on rules inferred from these analyses of the Preface vii relationship between head motion and dialogue acts. Issues regarding eye gaze controlduringheadmotioncontrolarealsodiscussedinChap.7.Evaluationresults show that the rule-based methods can generate more natural motions than con- ventional methods of directly mapping the original motions to the android. Almost fifty years ago, Mori proposed the hypothesis of a non-monotonic relationbetweenhowhumanlikeanartificialdeviceappearsandpeople’sfondness toward it. As a device becomes similar to our body in its appearance, our affinity graduallyrises.However,whenthedeviceacquiresacertainlevelofsimilaritytoa real human or human body parts, people suddenly start to feel a strong negative impressiontowardit.Moricalledthissuddenchangeintrendthe“BukiminoTani” (valleyofuncanniness).Thishypothesisisverypersuasivealongsidetheexamples he presented comparing a very humanlike myoelectric hand and a wooden hand createdbyaBuddhistimagesculptor.Mori’shypothesisattractedinterestinvarious fields, including human–robot interaction researchers, and has resulted in a large number of studies. Despite considerable efforts, until now, no clear evidence has beenfoundtoproveMori’shypothesis.Onereasonforthisisthelimitationsofthe methodsusedinmoststudies.Stillphotographs,suchasmorphedfiguresbetweena real human face and an artificial face, or video recordings of animated characters androbotshavemainlybeenusedfortesting.Inhisoriginalpaper,Moridescribed his hypothesis in terms of people’s interactions with an artificial device, but few studieshaveconsideredsuchaninteractivesituation.Anotherpossiblereasonisthe technical limitation that very humanlike artificial devices with interactive capabil- ities, such as robots, are hard to realize. Now, how does this “uncanny valley” response of mankind affect the design of robots intended to interact with people in socially functional ways, as we do with other humans? The main purpose of developing a humanoid robot is so that it can interactwithpeople.Ifthetaskofarobotisjusttofoldlaundryorcleanrooms,the robot need not interact with people, and thus humanlike behavior is not required. Onlywhenhelpingpeopletoconductmorecomplicatedtasksthatrequiredialogue withverbalandnonverbalcommunication,asamonghumans,arehumanlikerobots necessary. This humanlike appearance and behavior are important, as we are fine-tuned to recognize and understand detailed intentions from observing human behavior. Past studies have found evidence that people react differently toward machine-lookingentitiesandhumans.Peoplemaybeabletoinfertheotherentity’s “intention” as well as those of humans, such as with dogs, horses, or factory machines,butthisisonlyafterlong-termexperienceandtraining.Itismucheasier for us to understand the intention of other humans. Therefore, the appearance (including behavior) of robots is one of the most important factors in designing socially interactive robots. However, given the “uncanny valley” response, how should we design a robot’s appearance? While the mechanism behind the “uncanny valley” remains unclear, the basic systembehindsuchhumanresponsesisgraduallybeingrevealedbyusingandroids as a device for exploring human nature. In the following chapters, Shimada et al. hypothesizethatlateralinhibition,asseeninneuronalresponses,maybeonecause of the uncanny valley response (Chap. 8). viii Preface In Chap. 9, Matsuda et al. compare the brain activities of people watching various actions performed by a person and by robots with different degrees of humanlike-ness.Basedontheirobservations,theysuggestthatappearancedoesnot cruciallyaffecttheactivityofthehumanmirror-neuronsystem,andarguethatother factors, such as motion, should be targeted to improve the humanlike-ness of humanoid robots. Złotowski et al. report an exploratory study using a live interaction with robots having different types of embodiment, an area that has not been considered in previous studies (Chap. 10). With advances in robotic technologies, we are now at the stage to explore requirementsforcomplicatedtaskssuchaspersuadingorinstructingpeople.When robots start to play advanced roles in our lives, such as caring for the elderly, attributes such as trust, reliance, and persuasiveness will be critical for performing appropriateservicesinrolessuchasdoctors,teachers,andconsultants.Forrobotsto live alongside and communicate smoothly with people, and to be relied on to performcritical jobs, robotsmustconveytheassurednessrequired ofpeopleinthe same position; that is, to give the impression of reliability and trust. Past studies have shown the importance of humanlike nonverbal channels and the superiority of the physical presence of robots to software agents or computer terminals in everyday conversation. Researchers have been trying to make such interactive robots “humanoid” by equipping them with heads, eyes, and hands so that their appearance more closely resembles that of humans and they can make movements and gestures analogous to humans. These forms are not only efficient from the viewpoint of functionality, but also because people have a tendency to anthropo- morphize; that is, it is the humanlike appearance that best helps us interact with robots. However, to date, scant attention has been paid to how the appearance of service robots should be designed. Appearance has always been the role of industrial designers and has seldom been a field of study. Based on psychological and philosophical results, one dominant factor that rules human behavior is that ofthebodyshapingthemindor,morespecifically,thephenomenonofappearance forming an impression or changing people’s attitudes. For robots to obtain social attributes, the effect of appearance must by systematically examined. In the following chapters, people’s reactions toward robots, especially android robots with humanlike appearance, are examined from three aspects. In Chaps.11–13,theinitialresponseofpeople(especiallychildren)toandroidrobotsis examined. Chapters 14–16 explore whether robots can change people’s attitudes using different approaches. Furthermore, when robots are teleoperated by a real person,theactofoperation,especiallyconversation,revealsinterestinginsightsinto the fundamentals of human nature in terms of personality and individuality. In Chap. 17, exploratory attemptsto investigate such properties are described. Most of the studies described above investigate how people react when facing robots. However, when robots are used as a device for interaction, that is, when robots are teleoperated with people on both sides, those in front of the robots and the teleoperators are affected. Soon after starting to operate the Geminoid (a tele- operatedandroidrobot),peopletendtoadjusttheirbodymovementstothoseofthe Preface ix robot. They talk slowly in order to synchronize with the robot’s lip motion and makesmallmovementstomimicthoseoftherobot.Someoperatorsevenfeelasif they themselves have been touched when others touch the teleoperated android. This illusion, the Body Ownership Transfer (BOT) effect of teleoperated robots, is duetothesynchronizationbetweentheactofteleoperatingtherobotandthevisual feedbackoftherobot’smotion.IfBOTcanbeinducedmerelybyoperationwithout hapticfeedback,thenapplicationssuchashighlyimmersiveteleoperationinterfaces andprosthetichands/bodiesthatcanbeusedasrealbodypartscouldbedeveloped. In the following chapters, initial studies on BOT are introduced. Starting from theexplorationofBOTanditsbasicnature(Chap.18),variousaspectsofBOTare examined. How BOT occurs under different teleoperation interfaces (Chap. 19), how social situations influence BOT (Chap. 20), and theminimal requirements for BOTtooccurareinvestigatedthroughneuropsychologicalexperiments(Chap.21). Itisshownthatthewilltocontroltherobot(agency)andseeingtherobotinmotion (visual feedback) are sufficient for BOT, and thus the operator’s sense of propri- oception is not required. Aninterestingconjectureariseshere:Whentheoperatorfeelsthattheandroid’s body is his/her own, will a feedback phenomenon occur? For example, when the android’s facial expression changes on its own, without being controlled by the operator,willtheoperator’semotionbeaffected?Inthepast,psychologistsstudied a phenomenon known as the “facial feedback hypothesis,” which is based on WilliamJamesfamousideathattheawarenessofbodilychangesactivatesemotion. Iffeedbackfromtheteleoperatedrobotcouldaffecttheoperator,wemaybeableto implement a new device that can support the regulation of one’s physical or psy- chological activities. The final two chapters explore some ambitious trials on reg- ulatingpeoplethroughtheactofteleoperatingandroidrobots.Chapter22describes an attempt to regulate people’s emotion through facial expression feedback from androidrobots,whileChap.23presentsexperimentalresultsthatindicatetheneural activityoftheoperatorcanbeenhancedthroughteleoperatingandroidrobotswitha brain–computer interface. Most previous studies have focused on laboratory-based experiments. In this book,however,weintroducefieldstudiesthatexemplifythekindofrolesandroids might take in the real world. These studies demonstrate how people perceive androids when faced with them in everyday situations. Androids have a similar appearance to humans, but, at the same time, can be recognized as robots. There- fore,itisexpectedthatandroidscouldhaveasimilarpresenceashumansinthereal world. Moreover, androids have the potential to create a different influence to that ofactualhumans.Inthispart,weintroduceseveralfieldexperimentsthatwereheld infourdifferentsituations(acafé,hospital,departmentstore,andstageplay).Inthe first experiment, an android copy of Prof. Ishiguro, named Geminoid HI-2, was installed in a café at Ars Electronica in Linz, Austria (Chaps. 24 and 25). The resultsshowthatpeopletreatedtheandroidasasocialentity,notmerelyaphysical object. In Chap. 26, we describe a study on how a bystander android influences human behavior in a hospital. This experiment shows that when the android nods and smiles in synchronizationwiththepatient, thepatients impressions towardthe x Preface doctorarepositivelyenhanced.Asathirdfieldexperiment,theandroidtriedtosell a cashmere sweater to customers in a department store. The results show that 43 sweaters weresoldover10days.Thisindicatesthattheandroidcouldoperateasa salesperson in a store (Chaps. 27 and 28). Finally, in Chaps. 29 and 30, we investigatehowpeopleperceiveanandroidthatreadspoetryasastageplay.Inthis experiment, we create a stage play in collaboration with an artist and ask the audience about their impressions of how the android performs as an actor. We conclude this preface by thanking the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) for supporting this work through the KAKENHI Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (S) Number 25220004. Toyonaka, Japan Hiroshi Ishiguro April 2017 Fabio Dalla Libera
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