Gas Hydrate in Water Treatment: Technological, Economic, and Industrial Aspects

325 Pages·2022·11.24 MB·English

by  Bhajan Lal

Gas Hydrate in Water Treatment
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Gas Hydrate in Water Treatment
Technological, Economic, and Industrial Aspects
Bhajan Lal and Sirisha Nallakukkala
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
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This edition first published 2022
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Lal, Bhajan (Senior lecturer), author. | Nallakukkala, Sirisha, author.
Title: Gas hydrate in water treatment : technological, economic, and
industrial aspects / Bhajan Lal and Sirisha Nallakukkala.
Description: Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2022. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021061620 (print) | LCCN 2021061621 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119866114 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119866138 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119866077
(epub) | ISBN 9781119866145 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Natural gas--Hydrates. | Water--Purification.
Classification: LCC TN884 .L35 2022 (print) | LCC TN884 (ebook) | DDC
665.7--dc23/eng/20220217
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021061620
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021061621
Cover image: © Upklyak/Freepik.com
Cover design by Wiley
Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd, Pondicherry, India
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v
Contents
Preface  xiii
1 Introduction to Desalination 1
Jesa Singh, Vinayagam Sivabalan, and Bhajan Lal
1.1 Coping with Water Scarcity 1
1.2 Origin of Gas Hydrates 4
1.3 Concept of Hydrate Formation 5
1.4 Application of Gas Hydrate in Desalination 7
1.5 Phase Behavior and Thermodynamic Measurement 7
1.6 Kinetics of Hydrate Formation 8
1.6.1 Induction Time 10
1.6.2 Moles of Gas Used Up 10
1.6.3 Rate of Hydrate Formation 11
1.6.4 Water to Hydrate Conversion 11
1.7 Hydrate Decomposition 12
2 Technologies in Desalination 15
Jai Krishna Sahith and Bhajan Lal
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Conventional Desalination Methods 15
2.2.1 Multistage Flash Desalination 15
2.2.2 Multi-effect Desalination 19
2.2.3 Reverse Osmosis 21
2.2.4 Other Desalination Methods 23
2.3 Gas Hydrate-based Desalination 26
3 Prospectives on Gas Hydrates-based Desalination 31
Jesa Singh and Bhajan Lal
3.1 Introduction 31
3.2 General Proposed Gas Hydrate-based Desalination Design 32
3.2.1 Design 1 32
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vi Contents
3.2.2 Jacketed Reactor Designs 33
3.2.2.1 Design 1 33
3.2.2.2 Design 2 36
3.2.3 Silica Sand Bed Crystallizer Reactor Design 39
3.2.3.1 Design 1 39
3.2.3.2 Design 2 41
3.2.3.3 Design 3 42
3.2.4 Stirred Reactor Design 43
3.2.4.1 Design 1 43
3.2.4.2 Design 2 45
3.2.4.3 Design 3 47
3.2.5 Novel Reactor Design 50
4 Hydrate Promoters in Gas Hydrate-based Desalination 55
Sirisha Nallakukkala and Bhajan Lal
4.1 Chemical Additives in Desalination 55
4.2 Overview of Gas Hydrate Additives in the Desalination
Process 57
4.3 Favorable Conditions Used to Determine Suitable
Hydrating Agents 58
4.4 Formers and Promoters in Hydrate-based Desalination 58
4.5 Hydrate Formers Investigation 64
4.5.1 Gaseous Hydrate Formers 64
4.5.2 Liquid Hydrate Formers 65
4.5.3 Functional Additives 66
4.6 Conclusion 68
5 Modeling of Seawater Desalination by Gas Hydrate Method 77
Sirisha Nallakukkala and Bhajan Lal
5.1 Introduction 77
5.2 Gas Hydrate Thermodynamic and Kinetic models 78
5.3 Statistical Thermodynamic Modeling of Hydrate
Equilibrium 79
5.3.1 Modeling Thermodynamic Equilibrium of Cyclopentane Hydrates in
the Presence of Salts 84
5.3.1.1 Standard Freezing Point Depression Calculation 85
5.3.1.2 Hu–Lee–Sum Correlation 85
5.3.1.3 Kihara Approach 86
5.3.1.4 Activity-Based Occupancy Correlation Approach 86
5.3.2 Modeling of Thermodynamic Equilibrium of Mixed
Cyclopentane/Carbon Dioxide Hydrates 87
5.4 Kinetic Models for Hydrate Formation 88
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Contents vii
5.4.1 Mathematical Model for Seawater Desalination 88
5.4.2 Lattice Boltzmann Model for Hydrate Formation 92
5.5 Machine Learning Models to Predict
Desalination Efficiency 95
5.5.1 Machine Learning Techniques to Model Hydrate-based
Desalination 95
5.5.2 Adaptive Neuro-fuzzy Inference System 95
5.5.2.1 Layer 1: Input Membership Function Layer 96
5.5.2.2 Layer 2: Product Layer 97
5.5.2.3 Layer 3: Normalization Layer 97
5.5.2.4 Layer 4: Output Membership Function Layer 97
5.5.2.5 Layer 5: Overall Output Layer 98
5.5.3 SVM Approach 98
5.5.4 Genetic Algorithm 99
5.5.5 Conclusion 100
6 Gas Hydrates in Wastewater Treatment 113
Adeel Ur Rehman, Dzulkarnain B Zaini, and Bhajan Lal
6.1 Ecosystem Approach to Pollution Control 113
6.2 Interaction of Wastewater with the Ecosystem 114
6.3 Sources of Wastewater 116
6.3.1 Agricultural Wastewater 116
6.3.2 Municipal Wastewater 118
6.3.3 Industrial Wastewater 118
6.4 Impact of Wastewater on Ecology 122
6.5 Current Technologies for Addressing Wastewater Issues 123
6.5.1 Chemical Precipitation 123
6.5.2 Adsorption 124
6.5.3 Membrane Technologies 125
6.5.4 Electrodialysis 125
6.6 Gas Hydrates 126
6.6.1 Formation Process of Gas Hydrates 127
6.6.2 Gas Hydrate Growth Process 127
6.6.3 Kinetics of Hydrate Formation 127
6.6.3.1 Effects of Salt During Hydrate Formation 128
6.6.3.2 Effect of Water to Gas Ratio 129
6.6.3.3 Effect of Pressure During Hydrate Formation 130
6.6.3.4 Effect of Stirrer during Hydrate Formation 130
6.6.4 Hydrate Dissociation 130
6.6.4.1 Water Recovery 130
6.6.4.2 Removal Efficiency, Enrichment Factor, and Yield 131
6.6.5 Kinetic Models of Gas Hydrate Growth 131
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7 Artificial Intelligence in Water Treatment
Process Optimization 139
Jai Krishna Sahith and Bhajan Lal
7.1 Introduction 139
7.2 Background Information 140
7.3 Optimization of Water Treatment Plants 141
7.4 Application of Artificial Neural Networks for Freshwater
Treatment 144
7.5 Application of Artificial Neural Networks for Wastewater
Treatment 145
7.6 Other Artificial Intelligence Techniques for Wastewater
Treatment 147
7.7 Application on Gas Hydrate Plants 147
8 Standard Analytical Techniques for Analysis of Wastewater 155
Sirisha Nallakukkala and Bhajan Lal
8.1 Methods, Scope, and Their Applications 155
8.2 Physical Properties of Water 155
8.2.1 Color 156
8.2.1.1 Visual Comparison Method 156
8.2.1.2 Spectroscopic Single-wavelength Method 156
8.2.1.3 Spectrophotometric Multiwavelength Method 157
8.2.1.4 Tristimulus Spectrophotometric Method 157
8.2.1.5 ADMI Weighted-ordinate Spectrophotometric Method 158
8.2.2 Turbidity 158
8.2.2.1 Nephelometric Method 159
8.2.3 Odor 159
8.2.3.1 Threshold Odor Test 160
8.2.4 Taste 160
8.2.4.1 Flavor Threshold Test 161
8.2.4.2 Flavor Rating Assessment 161
8.2.4.3 Flavor Profile Analysis 161
8.2.5 Acidity 162
8.2.5.1 Titration Method (Acidity Measurement) 162
8.2.6 Alkalinity 163
8.2.6.1 Titration Method (Alkalinity Measurement) 163
8.2.7 Calcium Carbonate Saturation 164
8.2.7.1 Saturation Index Basis 165
8.2.7.2 Saturation Index by Experimental Determination 165
8.2.7.3 Calcium Carbonate Precipitation Potential for Alkalinity
Measurement 166
8.2.8 Hardness 166
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Contents ix
8.2.8.1 Calcium Carbonate Precipitation Potential for Hardness
Measurement 166
8.2.8.2 EDTA Titrimetric Method 167
8.2.9 Conductivity 167
8.2.10 Salinity 168
8.2.11 Solids 169
8.2.11.1 Total Dissolved Solids 169
8.2.11.2 Total Suspended Solids 169
8.2.12 Asbestos 170
8.2.13 Oxidation–Reduction Potential 171
8.2.14 Tests and Methods on Sludges 171
8.2.14.1 Oxygen Consumption Rate 172
8.2.14.2 Sludge Volume Index 172
8.2.14.3 Specific Gravity 172
8.2.14.4 Zone Settling Rate 172
8.2.14.5 Time for Capillary Suction 172
8.2.15 Anaerobic Sludge Digester Gas Analysis 173
8.2.15.1 Volumetric Method 173
8.2.15.2 Gas Chromatographic Method 174
8.3 Analysis of Inorganic Metal Constituents 174
8.3.1 Conductivity 175
8.3.2 Dissolved and Suspended Metals Filtration 175
8.3.3 Digestion of Metals 175
8.3.3.1 Selection of Acid 176
8.3.3.2 Nitric Acid Digestion 176
8.3.3.3 Microwave-assisted Digestion 177
8.3.4 Metals by Atomic Absorption Spectrometry 177
8.3.4.1 Metals by Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometry 178
8.3.4.2 Direct Air–Acetylene Flame Method 178
8.3.4.3 Extraction/Air–Acetylene Flame Method 178
8.3.4.4 Direct Nitrous Oxide–Acetylene Flame Method 179
8.3.5 Cold Vapor Atomic Absorption Spectrometry 179
8.3.6 Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometry 179
8.3.7 Arsenic and Selenium by Hydride Generation 180
8.3.8 Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy 180
8.3.9 Inductively Coupled Plasma–Mass Spectrometry 181
8.3.10 Anodic Stripping Voltammetry 181
8.4 Analysis of Inorganic Anion Constituents 182
8.4.1 Ion Chromatography with Chemical Suppression of Eluent
Conductivity 182
8.4.2 Single-column Ion Chromatography with Direct Conductivity
Detection 182
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x Contents
8.4.3 Ion Chromatography Determination of Oxyhalides and
Bromide 183
8.4.4 Capillary Ion Electrophoresis with Indirect Ultraviolet Detection 183
8.5 Analysis of Organic Constituents 184
8.5.1 Biochemical Oxygen Demand 184
8.5.2 Five-Day BOD Test 184
8.5.3 Ultimate BOD Test 185
8.5.4 Chemical Oxygen Demand 185
8.5.5 Total Organic Carbon 186
8.5.6 Oil and Grease 187
8.5.7 Phenols 188
8.5.8 Surfactants 189
8.5.9 Tannin and Lignin 190
8.5.10 Organic and Volatile Acids 190
8.6 Analysis of Radioactive Materials 191
8.7 Toxicity Test Systems, Requirements, Evaluation, and
Implementation 192
8.7.1 Requirements for Toxicity Test 193
8.7.2 Categories of Toxicity Test: Uses, Pros, and Cons 193
8.7.3 Short-term Toxicity Test 194
8.7.3.1 Range-finding Examination 194
8.7.3.2 Short-term Definitive Examination 194
8.7.3.3 Intermediate Toxicity Examination 194
8.7.3.4 Long-term Partial or Complete Toxicity Examination 195
8.7.3.5 Short-term Examination for Estimating Chronic Toxicity 195
8.7.4 Toxicity Test Systems 195
8.7.5 Source Evaluation of Toxicity 196
8.7.6 Toxicity Reduction Evaluation 196
8.7.6.1 Pretreatment Control Evaluation 197
8.7.6.2 In-plant Control Evaluation 197
8.7.7 Toxicity Control Implementation 197
8.7.8 Calculating, Investigating, and Reporting Toxicity Results 198
9 Economic Analysis of Desalination Process 207
Vinayagam Sivabalan, Jesa Singh, and Bhajan Lal
9.1 Overview 207
9.2 Cost of Treated Water 208
9.2.1 Fixed Cost 210
9.2.2 Variable Cost 210
9.3 Factors Affecting the Product Cost 211
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