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HISTORY BEHIND THE HEADLINES HISTORY BEHIND THE HEADLINES The Origins of Conflicts Worldwide VOLUME 1 Sonia G. Benson, Editor Editor Meghan Appel O’Meara Gale Group Staff Editorial: Bernard Grunow, Project Editor; Kathy Droste and Nancy Matuszak, Contributing Editors; Jason Everett, Associate Contributing Editor; Rita Runchock, Managing Editor. Permissions: Maria Franklin, Permissions Manager; Debra Freitas, Permissions Associate. Composition: Mary Beth Trimper, Manager, Composition and Electronic Prepress; Evi Seoud, Assistant Manager, Composition Purchasing and Electronic Prepress. Manufacturing: Dorothy Maki, Manufacturing Manager; Rhonda Williams, Buyer. Imaging and Multimedia Content: Barbara J. Yarrow, Imaging and Multimedia Content Manager; Randy Bassett, Image Database Supervisor; Dean Dauphinais, Senior Imaging Specialist; Dan Newell, Imaging Specialist; Pamela A. Reed, Imaging Coordinator. Product Design: Kenn J. Zorn, Product Design Manager; Pamela A. E. Galbreath, Senior Art Director. While every effort has been made to ensure the reliability of the information presented in this publication, Gale does not guarantee the accuracy of the data contained herein. Gale accepts no payment for listing; and inclusion in the publication of any organization, agency, institution, publi- cation, service, or individual does not imply endorsement of the editors or publisher. Errors brought to the attention of the publisher and verified to the satisfaction of the publisher will be corrected in future editions. This publication is a creative work fully protected by all ap- plicable copyright laws, as well as by misappropriation, trade secret, unfair competition, and other applicable laws. The authors and editors of this work have added value to the un- derlying factual material herein through one or more of the following: unique and original selection, coordination ex- pression, arrangement, and classification of the information. All rights to the publication will be vigorously defended. Copyright © 2001 by Gale Group 27500 Drake Rd. Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 Gale Group and Design is a trademark used herein under license. All rights reserved including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form. ISBN 0-7876-4951-1 ISSN 1531-7307 Printed in the United States 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 i i i TA B LE O F CO N T EN T S Contents by Subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Advisory Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii About the Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi A The Afghan Taliban: Emerging Government Or Civil Rights Tragedy? . . . . . . . . 1 The Taliban has been accused of denying basic human rights and supporting and harboring terrorists. (Amazon) Deforestation of the Amazon: Economics and Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 The Brazilian government, Brazilian companies, and multinational organizations are developing the Ama- zon, potentially threatening the environmental health of Earth, the Amazon’s long-term economic viability, and the indigenous people. B Bosnia-Herzegovina: Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 The Republic of Yugoslavia deteriorated into nation- alist and ethnic warfare following the break-up of the Soviet Union. Brazil: Racism and Equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Racial conflict has emerged in Brazil, a country that prides itself on being free from racism. C Chechnya and Russia: A War of Succession . . . . 46 Chechnya’s declaration of independence has caused a lengthy and bloody war as Russia attempted to prevent Chechnya from seceding. The Chiapas Rebellion: Indigenous People’s Rights in Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 The indigenous people of Chiapas’ fight for self- determination in Mexico. Colombian Drug Wars: Guerrillas, Paramilitary Groups, and the Government . . . . 70 The lucrative drug trade puts the drug organizations, the government, and paramilitary groups in conflict. (Congo-Kinshasa) The Democratic Republic of Congo: The African World War . . . . 78 Ethnic and civil warfare in Congo has involved many of the Congo’s neighboring countries. Cuba and the United States: Revolution, Nationalism and Enemies Next Door . . . . . . . . 89 Castro’s communist Cuba and the United States con- tinue a cold war through political maneuverings and economic embargoes. E Ethiopia and Eritrea: Border War . . . . . . . . . 103 Disagreement over a small piece of land causes a long and bloody war. G The Gaza Strip and West Bank: Statehood and Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Captured by Israel during the 1967 Six-Day War, the Gaza Strip and West Bank are the territories of the promised Palestinian state. German Right Wing Extremism: Anti-Foreigner Violence in the Country of the Holocaust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S i v H I S T O R Y B E H I N D T H E H E A D L I N E S , V O L U M E 1 Increases in right wing violence in Germany—primar- ily against foreigners—cause tension within Germany and suspicion outside of the country. H Humanitarian Aid: Compassion and Controversy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Lauded for reducing pain and suffering, humanitarian organizations have also been charged with prolonging war and fermenting dissent. I Iraq: Economic Sanctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Economic sanctions levied following the Gulf War have a devastating impact on Iraqis while there is little evidence of their success against the Iraqi government. K Kashmir: War in the Himalayas . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Kashmiris, Indians, and Pakistanis fight over Kashmir’s proposed independence. The Kurds in Turkey: The Capture of Ocalan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 The Kurds, a minority in Turkey, fight an occasion- ally violent war for independence. L Liberia in Civil War: Haven for Freed Slaves Reduced to Anarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 A long and brutal civil war in Liberia has led to the virtual destruction of the country. N Nagorno-Karabakh: Self-Determination and Ethnic Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Ethnic and religious differences spur Nagorno-Kara- bakh’s war of independence from Azerbaijan. O Oil: Protectionist Pricing and Fuel Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 High oil prices lead to charges that oil-producing countries are gouging Western nations, which are greatly dependent on oil. P (Pinochet) The Extradition of Chilean General Augusto Pinochet: Justice Delayed? . . . 204 Spain’s attempted extradition of Pinochet from Eng- land in 1999 raised, again, the image of the brutal mur- ders and torture during Pinochet’s reign in Chile. R Roma in Eastern Europe: The Wall in the Czech Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Long-standing prejudice and discrimination endures against Roma (Gypsies) in Eastern Europe. Rwanda and Burundi: Culture, History, Power, and Genocide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 The massacre of five hundred thousand to one million Tutsis during a brief period in 1994 aroused interna- tional attention and concern. S Serbia and NATO: The 1999 War . . . . . . . . . . 238 During 1999, NATO conducted an extensive bomb- ing campaign against the Federal Republic of Yugo- slavia (Serbia and Montenegro). The Soviet Union: Collapse of the USSR and Formation of Independent Republics . . . . 252 In the early 1990s, the Soviet Union disintegrated, leading to nationalist and ethnic warfare in some of the former republics. Sudan: Slavery and Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 The continuing civil war in Sudan has led to the re- emergence of slavery. Syria and Israel: Negotiations for Peace . . . . . 276 Frequently warring Syria and Israel may be slowly mov- ing toward peace. T Taiwan and China: Unification and Nationalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 China, which has not ruled Taiwan for more than one hundred years, except briefly after World War II, wants the power to rule again. U U.S. Militant Separatist Movements: Freedom Fighters or Terrorists? . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Militia movements in the United States have clashed frequently with federal and local law enforcement. V Venezuela: New Military Populism . . . . . . . . . 303 Venezuela, historically a model Latin American democracy, has elected a populist from the military. W The World Trade Organization: The Battle in Seattle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Opposition to globalization and increased world trade has led to occasionally violent protests. Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 General Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S H I S T O R Y B E H I N D T H E H E A D L I N E S , V O L U M E 1 v v i CO N T EN T S B Y S U B J E C T ECONOMIC (Amazon) Deforestation of the Amazon: Economics and Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Brazil: Racism and Equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 The Chiapas Rebellion: Indigenous People’s Rights in Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Cuba and the United States: Revolution, Nationalism and Enemies Next Door . . . . . . . . 89 Ethiopia and Eritrea: Border War . . . . . . . . . . 103 German Right Wing Extremism: Anti- Foreigner Violence in the Country of the Holocaust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Iraq: Economic Sanctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 The Kurds in Turkey: The Capture of Ocalan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Liberia in Civil War: Haven for Freed Slaves Reduced to Anarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Nagorno-Karabakh: Self-Determination and Ethnic Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Oil: Protectionist Pricing and Fuel Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Serbia and NATO: The 1999 War . . . . . . . . . . 238 The Soviet Union: Collapse of the USSR and Formation of Independent Republics . . . . 252 Sudan: Slavery and Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Syria and Israel: Negotiations for Peace . . . . . 276 Taiwan and China: Unification and Nationalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 U.S. Militant Separatist Movements: Freedom Fighters or Terrorists . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Venezuela: New Military Populism . . . . . . . . . 303 The World Trade Organization: The Battle in Seattle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 ENVIRONMENTAL (Amazon) Deforestation of the Amazon: Economics and Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 ETHNIC Bosnia-Herzegovina: Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Chechnya and Russia: A War of Succession . . . . 46 (Congo-Kinshasa) The Democratic Republic of Congo: The African World War . . . . 78 Nagorno-Karabakh: Self-Determination and Ethnic Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Roma in Eastern Europe: The Wall in the Czech Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Rwanda and Burundi: Culture, History, Power, and Genocide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Serbia and NATO: The 1999 War . . . . . . . . . . 238 The Soviet Union: Collapse of the USSR and Formation of Independent Republics . . . . 252 POLITICAL Chechnya and Russia: A War of Succession . . . . 46 The Chiapas Rebellion: Indigenous People’s Rights in Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Colombian Drug Wars: Guerrillas, Paramilitary Groups, and the Government . . . . 70 (Congo-Kinshasa) The Democratic Republic of Congo: The African World War . . . . 78 Cuba and the United States: Revolution, Nationalism and Enemies Next Door . . . . . . . . 89 The Gaza Strip and West Bank: Statehood and Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 German Right Wing Extremism: Anti- Foreigner Violence in the Country of the Holocaust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Humanitarian Aid: Compassion and Controversy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Iraq: Economic Sanctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 The Kurds in Turkey: The Capture of Ocalan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Liberia in Civil War: Haven for Freed Slaves Reduced to Anarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Nagorno-Karabakh: Self-Determination and Ethnic Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 The Extradition of Chilean General Augusto Pinochet: Justice Delayed? . . . . . . . . . 204 Roma in Eastern Europe: The Wall in the Czech Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Rwanda and Burundi: Culture, History, Power, and Genocide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Serbia and NATO: The 1999 War . . . . . . . . . . 238 Syria and Israel: Negotiations for Peace . . . . . 276 Taiwan and China: Unification and Nationalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 U.S. Militant Separatist Movements: Freedom Fighters or Terrorists . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Venezuela: New Military Populism . . . . . . . . . 303 The World Trade Organization: The Battle in Seattle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 RACIAL Brazil: Racism and Equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 German Right Wing Extremism: Anti- Foreigner Violence in the Country of the Holocaust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 U.S. Militant Separatist Movements: Freedom Fighters or Terrorists . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 RELIGIOUS The Afghan Taliban: Emerging Government Or Civil Rights Tragedy? . . . . . . . . 1 Kashmir: War in the Himalayas . . . . . . . . . . . 151 The Kurds in Turkey: The Capture of Ocalan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Roma in Eastern Europe: The Wall in the Czech Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Sudan: Slavery and Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Syria and Israel: Negotiations for Peace . . . . . 276 U.S. Militant Separatist Movements: Freedom Fighters or Terrorists . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 TERRITORIAL Ethiopia and Eritrea: Border War . . . . . . . . . . 103 The Gaza Strip and West Bank: Statehood and Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Iraq: Economic Sanctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 The Soviet Union: Collapse of the USSR and Formation of Independent Republics . . . . 252 Syria and Israel: Negotiations for Peace . . . . . 276 C O N T E N T S B Y S U B J E C T H I S T O R Y B E H I N D T H E H E A D L I N E S , V O L U M E 1 v i i v i i i A DV I S O RY B OA R D Jerry H. Bentley is professor of history at the University of Hawaii and editor of the Journal of World History. His research on the religious, moral, and political writings of Renaissance hu- manists led to the publication of Humanists and Holy Writ: New Testament Scholarship in the Renaissance and Politics and Culture in Renais- sance Naples. More recently, his research has concentrated on global history and particularly on processes of cross-cultural interaction. His book Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times examines processes of cultural exchange and re- ligious conversion before the modern era, and his pamphlet “Shapes of World History in Twentieth-Century Scholarship” discusses the historiography of world history. His current in- terests include processes of cross-cultural inter- action and cultural exchanges in modern times. Ken Berger received his B.A. in East Asian Studies at Eckerd College and his M.A. in Asian Studies and M.S.L.S. from Florida State University. He has been a librarian at Duke University since 1977, with almost all of his time spent as a reference librarian and bibli- ographer, including the last several years as head of reference. He is currently the Project Manager for the Library Service Center. He has written hundreds of reviews in East Asian studies, military affairs and history, and library and information science. Frank J. Coppa is Professor of History at St. John’s University, Director of their doctoral program, and Chair of the University’s Vati- can Symposium. He is also an Associate in the Columbia University Seminar on Modern Italy, and editor of the Lang Series on Studies on Modern Europe. He has published bi- ographies on a series of European figures, written and edited more than twelve volumes, as well as publishing in a series of journals in- cluding the Journal of Modern History and the Journal of Economic History, among others. He is editor of the Dictionary of Modern Italian History and the Encyclopedia of the Vatican and Papacy. Bill Gaudelli received his Ed.D. in Social Studies Education from Rutgers University in 2000. He dissertation was on “Approaches to Global Education.” He teaches at Hunterdon Central Regional High School (winner of the National Council for the Social Studies Programs of Excellence Award) and Teachers College- Columbia University. Publications include “Teaching Human Rights through Conflict- Resolution” in Social Science and “Global Edu- cation: a Viable Framework for an Issues- Centered Curriculum” in ERIC Documents. He is a member of the National Council for Social Studies and the American Forum for Global Education. Paul Gootenberg is a Professor of Latin American History at SUNY-Stony Brook. A graduate of the University of Chicago and Oxford, he spe- cializes in the economic, social, and intellec- tual history of the Andes and Mexico, and more recently, the global history of drugs. He has published Between Silver and Guano (1989), Imagining Development (1993) and Cocaine: Global Histories (1999). Gootenberg has held many fellowships; they include Fulbright, SSRC, ACLS, Institute for Advanced Study, Russell Sage Foundation, the Rhodes Scholarship, and a Guggenheim. He lives in Brooklyn, New York with his wife, Laura Sainz, and son, Danyal Natan. Margaret Hallisey is a practicing high school li- brary media specialist in Burlington, Mas- sachusetts. She is a graduate of Regis College with a B.A. in English and of Simmons College with a M.S. in Library and Informa- tion Science. A member of Beta Phi Mu, the International Library Science Honor Society, she serves on the executive Boards of the American Association of School Librarians (AASL), the Massachusetts School Library Media Association (MSLMA) and the New England Educational Media Association (NEEMA). Patricia H. Hodgson is the District Librarian for the Aspen School District, in Aspen, Colo- rado. She is a member of the American Library Association, the American Association for School Librarians, and the World History Association. She received her M.L.M. from the University of Colorado at Denver. Donna Maier has been with the Department of History at the University of Northern Iowa since 1986. Her research interests are in nine- teenth century Asante (Ghana), African Islam, and traditional African medicine. Her exten- sive lists of publications include “The Military Acquisition of Slaves in Asante,” in West African Economic and Social History, The Cloths of Many-Colored Silks (1996), and History and Life, the World and Its Peoples (1977-90, with Wallbank and Shrier). She is a member of the African Studies Association and the Ghana Studies Council. Linda Karen Miller, Ph.D., teaches American government, world history and geography at Fairfax High School in Fairfax, Virginia. A twenty-nine year veteran, she has received sev- eral national and state teaching awards such as the National Council for the Social Studies Secondary Teacher of the Year in 1996, the Organization of American Historian Pre- Collegiate Teacher of the Year in 1996, the Excellence in Teaching Award from the University of Kansas and the University of Virginia, and the Global Education Award from the National Peace Corps Association. She has traveled to Russia and Armenia under grants sponsored by the U.S. Department of State. She has published several lesson plans and articles for PBS and, most recently, Turner Learning’s “Millennium 1000 Years of His- tory.” She also serves as a consultant to News- week magazine and the Wall Street Journal Classroom Edition, as well as the GED test- ing service. Philip Yockey is Social Sciences Bibliographer and Assistant Chief Librarian for Staff Training and Development at the Humanities and Social Sciences Library at The New York Pub- lic Library. A D V I S O R Y B O A R D H I S T O R Y B E H I N D T H E H E A D L I N E S , V O L U M E 1 i x x A B O U T T H E S ER I E S I n 1991 the world witnessed a political change of great magnitude. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) crumbled, ushering in a new era of democracy and the official end of the Cold War. East and West Germany had reunited just two years earlier; for many people formerly behind the Iron Curtain, now seemed to be a time of unbound freedom and autonomy. Yet ten years later, news- casts and newspapers report of a six year war be- tween Russia and Chechnya, a former state within the USSR. After so much optimism about the fu- ture, what caused this instability and unrest? Was the cause based in a fundamental flaw of the ini- tial break-up of the USSR or perhaps from some- thing much further back in the regions’ histories? How did the international community react to the USSR’s collapse and the strife that was to follow? History Behind the Headlines (HBH), a new, on- going series from the Gale Group, strives to an- swer these and many other questions in a way that television broadcasts and newspapers cannot. In or- der to keep reports both simple and short, it is dif- ficult for these media to give the watcher or reader enough background information to fully under- stand what is happening around the world today. HBH provides just that background, giving the general public, student, and teacher an explication of each contemporary conflict from its start to its present and even its future. This thoroughness is accomplished not just by the in-depth material cov- ered in the main body of each essay, but also by ac- companying chronologies, textual and biographical sidebars, maps, and bibliographic sources. Not only does HBH provide comprehensive information on all of the conflicts it covers, it also strives to present its readers an unbiased and in- clusive perspective. Each essay, written by an ex- pert with a detailed knowledge of the conflict at hand, avoids taking any particular side and instead seeks to explain each vantage point. Unlike televi- sion and newpaper reports, which may only have the time, space or even inclination to show one side of a story, HBH essays equally detail all sides involved. Given the number of conflicts that beg such explication as HBH provides, an advisory board of school and library experts helps to guide the selec- tion process and narrow down the selection for each volume. They balance the topic lists, making sure that a proper mix of economic, political, ethnic and geographically diverse conflicts are chosen. Two volumes, each written in an accessible, informative way, will be released each year. x i P R EFAC E Selection and Arrangement T his volume of History Behind the Headlines cov- ers thirty conflicts—including ethnic, reli- gious, economic, political, territorial, and environ- mental conflicts. The topics were chosen following an extensive review of the conflicts covered in news- papers, magazines, and on television. A large num- ber of potential conflicts were identified. Advisors— including academic experts, high school social study teachers, and librarians—prioritized the list, identi- fying those conflicts that generate the most ques- tions. Topics were then selected to provide a re- gional balance and to cover various types of conflicts. The conflicts covered are complex. Each essay discusses multiple aspects of the conflict, including economic and social aspects to religious conflicts, the interests of other countries, international orga- nizations, and businesses, and the international im- plications of the conflict. The entries are arranged alphabetically by a major country, region, organi- zation, or person in the conflict. Where this might not be clear in the table of contents, the keyword is placed in parentheses in front of the title. Content Each essay begins with a brief summary of the current situations as well as some of the major fac- tors in the conflict. Each essay contains the fol- lowing sections: • Summary of the headline event. An overview of the contemporary conflict that has brought the issue to public attention. For example, the arrest and conviction of Ocalan by Turkey in 1999 or the battle over Elian Gonzalez. • Historical Background. The “Historical Background” is the heart of the essay. The au- thor provides the historical context to the con- temporary conflict, summarizing the arc of the conflict through history. Each essay tells the “story” of the conflict, capturing important events, transfers of power, interventions, treaties, and more. The author summarizes the changes in the conflict over time, describes the role of major figures, whether individuals, po- litical organizations, or religious organizations, and provides an overview of their positions now and in the past. Where appropriate the author may draw comparisons with similar situations in the country or region in the past. In addi- tion, the author often attempts to put the con- flict in the context of global politics and to de- scribe the impact of the conflict on people around the world. Finally, the author may touch on how historians’ understanding of the conflict has changed over time. • Recent History and the Future. The final sec- tion brings the conflict up-to-date, and may offer some projections for future resolution. Each essay is followed by a brief bibliography that offers some suggestions of resources for fur- ther research. In addition, brief biographies may accompany the essay, profiling major figures. Side- bars may provide statistical information, a quote from a speech, a selection from a primary source document (such as a treaty), a selection from a book or newspaper article that adds to the understand- ing of the conflict, or may explore an issue in greater depth (such as the Armenian Genocide in Turkey during World War I or the nature of control of the media during the Chechen war). Images may also accompany the essay, including one or more maps showing the area of conflict. A selected bibliography providing suggestions for background information and research on the P R E F A C E x i i H I S T O R Y B E H I N D T H E H E A D L I N E S , V O L U M E 1 nature of conflicts and a comprehensive index ap- pear at the back of each volume. History is to be Read Critically Each of the talented writers (mostly academic authorities) in this volume strived to provide an objective and comprehensive overview of the con- flict and its historical context. The nature of con- temporary conflict, however, makes it difficult to wholly accomplish this objective. Contemporary history and, in fact, all history—should be read critically. Acknowledgements Many thanks for their help to the excellent ad- visors who guided this project—their attention and feedback was greatly appreciated. Many thanks, also, to the thoughtful and dedicated writers, who lent their expertise to help others understand the complex history behind sound bites on the news. Thanks to Bernard Grunow and the team at the Gale Group that made the manuscript a book. Fi- nally, thanks to my family and friends—especially B.B. Sela—for their support and encouragement. Comments on this volume and suggestions for future volumes are welcomed. Please direct all cor- respondence to: Editor, History Behind the Headlines Gale Group 27500 Drake Rd. Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 (800) 877-4253 I n 1996 a radical Muslim sect known as the Taliban successfully captured Afghanistan’s cap- ital city of Kabul. With this victory, Taliban gained control of three quarters of the nation. Taliban leaders immediately imposed a strict interpretation of Islamic law on the citizens of Afghanistan, requiring women to wear full length veils and men to grow beards, and imposing severe penalties for most crimes. As a result of the Taliban’s actions, Afghanistan was thrust into the international spotlight. In February 2000 an Afghan Ariana Airlines Boeing 727 was hijacked by Afghan citizens. The flight from Kabul, the Afghan capital, to Mazar-e-Sharif, the capital of the Balkh province of Afghanistan (located in the north central part of the nation) was supposed to fly several families to a wedding. The plane never arrived. Shortly after takeoff, six to ten of the passengers armed them- selves and demanded that the flight crew fly them out of Afghanistan. The flight finally arrived in London on Monday, February 9, 2000, one day after departure from Kabul. Upon arrival at London’s Stansted Airport early Monday morning, the hijackers released a few hostages, primarily those with medical conditions. However, it soon became clear that this was not a simple terrorist act, as those who left the plane described several passengers not associated with the hijackers “many of the women and children— laughed, tossed aside their veils and received the choicest food and drink from their captors.” It appeared that this hijacking was an effort by a group of Afghan families to escape the oppressive Taliban regime. Once the British government negotiated a peaceful settlement with the hijackers, this suspicion seemed to have been confirmed. 1 T H E A F G H A N TA LI BA N: EM ERG I N G G OV ER N M EN T O R C I V I L R I G H T S T R AG EDY? THE CONFLICT From 1978 to 1992, the Afghanistan government was Communist and closely allied with the Soviet Union. The United States funded and armed rebels fighting the Communists—the mujadin. The mujadin were Islamic funda- mentalists, and when the Soviet Union withdrew and the Afghani government fell, the mujadin established strict Islamic law, shari’a. Religious • The Taliban, leaders of the organization ruling much of Afghanistan, believe in strict Islamic law. Political • Many people around the world believe the regime is denying its citizens their basic human rights. • Western nations have charged that Afghanistan harbors and supports terrorists. • The Taliban believes the U.S. betrayed it by ending funding and support after the end of the Cold War. The Taliban swiftly sent another airliner to collect their wayward citizens. By Thursday, February 11, seventy-four had requested asylum in England, twenty-one had been arrested for the hijacking (the original six to ten, plus an addition- al number implicated as co-conspirators), and the remainder (roughly seventy men and women) chose to return home to Afghanistan. Despite the negative publicity of the hijacking, Taliban offi- cials still separated the men and women from each other as they left the plane in Kabul, as required by Islamic law (CNN.com, February 14, 2000, AsiaNow site). T H E A F G H A N T A L I B A N : E M E R G I N G G O V E R N M E N T O R C I V I L R I G H T S T R A G E D Y ? 2 H I S T O R Y B E H I N D T H E H E A D L I N E S , V O L U M E 1 CHRONOLOGY 1933–73 King Mohammed Zahir Shah attempts to mod- ernize and Westernize Afghanistan. 1973 Zahir’s cousin Daud, stages a coup and declares him- self leader of the “Republic of Afghanistan.” He relies on Communist supporters to come to power. 1978 Communists take control of the Afghan government and are closely allied with the Soviet Union. The new government fights a civil war against several groups of mujadin. 1979 Soviet troops invade Afghanistan. 1989 The Soviet Union withdraws its troops from Afghan- istan in defeat. 1992–96 Civil war breaks out among the different factions of mujadin. 1993 The Rabbani regime comes to power. 1996 The Taliban moves to capture all of Afghanistan. 1997 The Taliban captures Kabul, the capitol of Afghan- istan. 1998 The Taliban declines to turn suspected terrorist Osama bin Laden over to the United States. 1999 The Taliban controls more than ninety percent of Afghanistan. The United States and the United Nations still deal with Rabbani’s group. 2000 Afghan Ariana Airlines Boeing 727 is hijacked in what appears to be a bid for asylum. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Geography and History Afghanistan is a small south Asian nation of 250,000 square miles. It is slightly smaller than Texas, which is 261,914 square miles. Afghanistan shares borders with Pakistan to the east, Iran to the southwest, Turkmenistan to the northwest, and Uzbekistan and Tajikstan to the north. Only about 12 percent of Afghanistan’s land is suitable for cultivation, and of that 12 percent, almost 50 percent is dedicated to farming or livestock. Afghanistan has a population of almost twenty-six million people—it is almost twice as populous as Texas (population 17,655,650 in 1992), but small- er than California (population 30,866,851 in 1992). Only about twenty-five percent of Afghans have electricity; for the last twenty years, city ser- vices have often been interrupted by war among the various ethnic and religious factions in Afghanistan. Because of the continued conflict, the average Afghan’s life expectancy is forty-seven years. In contrast, the average life expectancy for an American is seventy-six years. The majority of Afghans work on small sub- sistence farms. Inflation is currently at about 240 percent (roughly one hundred times that of the United States), although it cannot be accurately de- termined. The few industries that exist in Afghan- istan are textiles and soap manufacturers, and, to a lesser degree, woven rugs and oil drilling. The people of Afghanistan represent several distinct ethnic groups. The Pashtun are the largest group, representing about thirty-three percent of the population. Tajiks and Uzbekis comprise about thirty percent of the rest of the population, with Hazaris totaling another twenty percent. The remaining fifteen percent or so are of various eth- nic backgrounds. The people of Afghanistan also speak several unique languages and dialects. Persian represents the most widely used language in Afghanistan, followed by Pashtu. The majority of Afghans follow the Muslim faith. Islam has two major branches of faith, the Shiite and the Sunni. The Shiite believe that lead- ership of the Islamic community follows a dynastic succession from Imam Ali (a cousin of the prophet Muhammed) and his children. The Shiite of Afghanistan live in the central provinces and were the first to fight against the Soviets. Shiite follow- ers comprise only about fifteen percent of Afghanistan’s Muslim community. The Sunni branch of the Islam faith comprise about eighty-

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