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Fundamentals of work measurement: what every engineer should know PDF

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F U N D A M E N T A L S O F WORK MEASUREMENT What Every Engineer Should Know F U N D A M E N T A L S O F WORK MEASUREMENT What Every Engineer Should Know Anil Mital Anoop Desai Aashi Mital Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed on acid-free paper Version Date: 20160815 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-4582-6 (Paperback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information stor- age or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copy- right.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that pro- vides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photo- copy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Table of Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xiii 1 . Introduction: Significance of Work Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 1 .1 What Is Work? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 1 .2 Factors Adding Work Content to a Product (or Activity) . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 1 .2 .1 Product Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 1 .2 .2 Lack of Standardization and Incorrect Quality Standards . . . . .2 1 .2 .3 Poor Choice of Process or Method of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 1 .2 .4 Reducing Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 1 .2 .5 Poor Management and Poor Worker Performance . . . . . . . . . . . .4 1 .3 What Is Work Measurement? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 1 .4 Why Is It Important to Measure Work? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 1 .4 .1 Product Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 1 .4 .2 Equipment, Tool, Fixture, and Jig Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 1 .4 .3 Selection of Equipment and Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 1 .4 .4 Processing and Operations Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 1 .4 .5 Production Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1 .4 .6 Labor Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 1 .4 .7 Wages and Wage Incentives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 1 .4 .8 Comparison of Work Methods and Task Evaluations . . . . . . . . . .8 1 .4 .9 Preparing Budget, Controlling Costs, and Establishing Selling Price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 1 .4 .10 Facilities Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 1 .5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 2 . Prior to Measuring Work: Minimizing Inefficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 2 .1 Selecting Job or Activity to Be Studied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 2 .2 Recording the Existing Work Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2 .2 .1 Outline Process Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 2 .2 .2 Flow Process Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 2 .2 .3 The Two-Handed Process Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 2 .2 .4 Procedure Flowchart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22 2 .2 .5 Multiple Activity Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24 2 .2 .6 Gang Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 2 .2 .7 Simultaneous Motion Cycle (SIMO) Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 v 2 .2 .8 Flow Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 2 .2 .9 String Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 2 .2 .10 Cyclegraphs and Chronocyclegraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 2 .2 .11 Travel Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 2 .3 Examining the Recorded Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 2 .3 .1 Ishikawa or Fishbone Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 2 .3 .2 The Questioning Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32 2 .3 .3 Operation Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 2 .4 Making Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 2 .5 Workstation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 2 .5 .1 Static Work/Loads and Fixed Working Postures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 2 .5 .2 Repetitive Trauma Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37 2 .5 .3 Work Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38 2 .5 .4 Providing an Adjustable Chair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39 2 .5 .5 Feet/Legs and Hands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40 2 .5 .6 Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40 2 .5 .7 Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 2 .5 .8 Principles of Motion Economy and Hand Motions . . . . . . . . . . .41 2 .5 .9 Dominant Hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41 2 .5 .10 Working Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42 2 .5 .11 Physical “Fit” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42 2 .6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 3 . The Basics of Time Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45 3 .1 Selecting the Job to Be Timed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45 3 .2 Recording the Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46 3 .2 .1 Breaking the Job into Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48 3 .2 .2 Timing the Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 3 .2 .3 Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52 3 .2 .4 Allowances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56 3 .3 Determining the Time Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57 3 .4 Determining Standard Time When Working with Machines . . . . . . . .58 3 .5 A Time Study Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59 4 . Allowances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63 4 .1 Personal Allowances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63 4 .2 Delay Allowances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63 4 .3 Fatigue Allowances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64 4 .3 .1 Physiological Fatigue Allowances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 vi 4 .3 .2 Psychological Fatigue Allowances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72 4 .3 .3 Environmental Fatigue Allowances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75 5 . Work Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79 5 .1 The Concept of Work Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79 5 .2 Advantages of Work Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79 5 .3 Disadvantages of Work Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80 5 .4 Procedure for Conducting a Work Sampling Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80 5 .5 Accuracy and Precision of Work Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83 5 .6 Control Charts in Work Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85 5 .7 Allowances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89 5 .8 Performance and Cost Evaluation Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89 5 .9 Examples of Work Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92 5 .10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94 6 . Predetermined Motion Time System (PMTS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95 6 .1 The Basic Concept of PMTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95 6 .2 Method Time Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95 6 .3 Procedure to Apply MTM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99 6 .4 Work Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105 6 .4 .1 Detailed Work Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106 6 .4 .2 Simplified Work Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 6 .4 .3 Abbreviated Work Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107 6 .4 .4 Ready Work Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107 6 .4 .5 Brief Work Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 6 .4 .6 Detailed Mento Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 6 .5 Maynard Operation Sequence Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 6 .5 .1 Basic MOST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 6 .5 .2 General Move . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112 6 .5 .3 Controlled Move . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 6 .5 .4 Tool Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 6 .5 .5 Types of MOST Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 6 .5 .5 .1 Mini MOST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 6 .5 .5 .2 Maxi MOST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 6 .6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 7 . Standard Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 7 .1 The Concept of Standard Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 7 .2 Development of Standard Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 7 .3 Data in Tabular Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 vii 7 .4 Data Using Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120 7 .5 Applying Standard Data Using Analytical Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . .124 7 .5 .1 Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124 7 .5 .2 Turning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126 7 .5 .3 Milling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127 7 .6 Using Standard Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129 7 .7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135 8 . Measuring White-Collar Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137 8 .1 Basic Concept of White-Collar Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137 8 .2 Standards of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139 8 .3 Benchmarking Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140 8 .4 An Approach to Measure White-Collar Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 8 .5 Office Standard Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144 8 .6 Office Standard Data Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145 8 .6 .1 Advanced Office Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146 8 .6 .2 Advanced Standard Data Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149 8 .7 Multiple Linear Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149 8 .7 .1 Ambiguous Nature of White-Collar Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153 8 .8 Functional Performance System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156 8 .8 .1 Role of Office Technology in Improving White-Collar Productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160 8 .9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 9 . Nontraditional Methods of Measuring Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163 9 .1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163 9 .2 Metabolic Energy Expenditure or Oxygen Consumption . . . . . . . . . .164 9 .2 .1 Measuring Aerobic Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166 9 .2 .2 Instruments for Measuring Oxygen Uptake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 9 .3 Heart Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168 9 .4 Ratings of Perceived Exertion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169 9 .5 Body Core Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 9 .6 Flicker Fusion Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172 9 .7 Subjective Feelings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173 9 .8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173 10 . Instrumentation and Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175 10 .1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175 10 .2 Stopwatches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175 viii 10 .3 Time Study Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178 10 .3 .1 Proplanner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180 10 .3 .2 Timer Pro Professional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180 10 .3 .3 Design Systems Inc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183 10 .3 .4 VRex Software Suite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187 10 .4 Nontraditional Methods of Measuring Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187 10 .5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194 11 . Using Work Measurement in Cost Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195 11 .1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195 11 .2 Product Pricing Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196 11 .3 Estimating Direct Labor Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197 11 .3 .1 The Process Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197 11 .3 .2 Estimating Machining Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198 11 .3 .3 Direct Labor Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200 11 .4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201 Suggested Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203 Appendix: Source Listing of Rest Allowance Determination Program Based on Metabolic Energy Expenditure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 ix

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This book will provide a quick reference on Work Measurement. While the nature of the work may differ, measuring work is fundamental to any industrial or service activity. It’s needed to determine such things as the amount a person should be paid, how much time should it take to perform an activit
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