Fundamentals of Wireless Sensor Networks

319 Pages·3.159 MB·English

by  Waltenegus Dargie, Christian Poellabauer(auth.), Xuemin (Sherman) Shen, Yi Pan(eds.)

FUNDAMENTALS OF
WIRELESS SENSOR
NETWORKS
F undamentals of Wi re less Sensor Networks: Theory and P ractice Waltenegus Dargie and Christian Poellabauer
© 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 978-0-470-99765-9
Wiley Series on Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing
SeriesEditors:DrXuemin(Sherman)Shen,UniversityofWaterloo,Canada
DrYiPan,GeorgiaStateUniversity,USA
The“WileySeriesonWirelessCommunicationsandMobileComputing”isaseriesofcomprehensive,
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computing.Thebooksprovideengineersandothertechnicalprofessionals,researchers,educators,and
advancedstudentsinthesefieldswithinvaluableinsightintothelatestdevelopmentsandcutting-edge
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FUNDAMENTALS OF
WIRELESS SENSOR
NETWORKS
THEORY AND PRACTICE
Waltenegus Dargie
TechnicalUniversityofDresden,Germany
Christian Poellabauer
UniversityofNotreDame,USA
A John Wiley and Sons, Ltd., Publication
Thiseditionfirstpublished2010
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Dargie,Waltenegus.
Fundamentalsofwirelesssensornetworks:theoryandpractice/WaltenegusDargie,ChristianPoellabauer.
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Includesindex.
ISBN978-0-470-99765-9(cloth)
1.Wirelesssensornetworks.I.Poellabauer,Christian.II.Title.
TK7872.D48D372010
681’.2–dc22
2010003984
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ISBN978-0-470-99765-9(H/B)
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To my wife, Kathy,
and my children, Joshua and Pheben
Waltenegus Dargie
To my wife, Rumana,
and my children, Adam and Maya
Christian Poellabauer
Contents
About the Series Editors xv
Preface xvii
Part One: INTRODUCTION
1 Motivation for a Network of Wireless Sensor Nodes 3
1.1 DefinitionsandBackground 4
1.1.1 Sensing andSensors 4
1.1.2 WirelessSensorNetworks 7
1.2 ChallengesandConstraints 9
1.2.1 Energy 10
1.2.2 Self-Management 11
1.2.3 WirelessNetworking 11
1.2.4 DecentralizedManagement 12
1.2.5 DesignConstraints 12
1.2.6 Security 13
1.2.7 OtherChallenges 13
Exercises 14
References 15
2 Applications 17
2.1 StructuralHealthMonitoring 17
2.1.1 Sensing Seismic Events 18
2.1.2 Single Damage DetectionUsing Natural Frequencies 19
2.1.3 Multiple Damage DetectionUsing Natural Frequencies 19
2.1.4 Multiple Damage DetectionUsing Mode Shapes 20
2.1.5 Coherence 21
2.1.6 Piezoelectric Effect 22
2.1.7 Prototypes 24
2.2 TrafficControl 26
2.2.1 TheSensing Task 26
2.2.2 Prototypes 30
2.3 HealthCare 30
2.3.1 Available Sensors 32
2.3.2 Prototypes 32
viii Contents
2.4 PipelineMonitoring 35
2.4.1 Prototype 35
2.5 PrecisionAgriculture 36
2.5.1 Prototypes 37
2.6 ActiveVolcano 38
2.6.1 Prototypes 39
2.7 UndergroundMining 40
2.7.1 SourcesofAccidents 41
2.7.2 TheSensing Task 42
Exercises 42
References 44
3 Node Architecture 47
3.1 TheSensingSubsystem 48
3.1.1 Analog-to-Digital Converter 48
3.2 TheProcessorSubsystem 51
3.2.1 ArchitecturalOverview 52
3.2.2 Microcontroller 54
3.2.3 Digital Signal Processor 54
3.2.4 Application-Specific Integrated Circuit 55
3.2.5 FieldProgrammable Gate Array 56
3.2.6 Comparison 57
3.3 CommunicationInterfaces 58
3.3.1 Serial Peripheral Interface 58
3.3.2 Inter-IntegratedCircuit 59
3.3.3 Summary 61
3.4 Prototypes 62
3.4.1 TheIMote Node Architecture 63
3.4.2 TheXYZ Node Architecture 64
3.4.3 TheHogthrob Node Architecture 65
Exercises 66
References 68
4 Operating Systems 69
4.1 FunctionalAspects 70
4.1.1 DataTypes 70
4.1.2 Scheduling 70
4.1.3 Stacks 71
4.1.4 System Calls 71
4.1.5 Handling Interrupts 71
4.1.6 Multithreading 72
4.1.7 Thread-BasedvsEvent-BasedProgramming 72
4.1.8 MemoryAllocation 73
4.2 NonfunctionalAspects 73
4.2.1 Separation of Concern 73
4.2.2 System Overhead 74
Contents ix
4.2.3 Portability 74
4.2.4 Dynamic Reprogramming 74
4.3 Prototypes 75
4.3.1 TinyOS 75
4.3.2 SOS 78
4.3.3 Contiki 80
4.3.4 LiteOS 85
4.4 Evaluation 88
Exercises 90
References 91
Part Two: BASIC ARCHITECTURAL FRAMEWORK
5 Physical Layer 95
5.1 BasicComponents 95
5.2 SourceEncoding 96
5.2.1 TheEfficiency of aSource Encoder 98
5.2.2 Pulse Code Modulation andDelta Modulation 100
5.3 ChannelEncoding 101
5.3.1 TypesofChannels 103
5.3.2 Information Transmission overaChannel 104
5.3.3 Error Recognition andCorrection 106
5.4 Modulation 106
5.4.1 Modulation Types 106
5.4.2 Quadratic Amplitude Modulation 114
5.4.3 Summary 117
5.5 SignalPropagation 117
Exercises 119
References 123
6 Medium Access Control 125
6.1 Overview 125
6.1.1 Contention-FreeMedium Access 127
6.1.2 Contention-BasedMedium Access 127
6.2 WirelessMACProtocols 128
6.2.1 CarrierSense Multiple Access 129
6.2.2 Multiple Accesswith Collision Avoidance(MACA)and MACAW 129
6.2.3 MACABy Invitation 130
6.2.4 IEEE 802.11 130
6.2.5 IEEE 802.15.4and ZigBee 132
6.3 CharacteristicsofMACProtocolsinSensorNetworks 133
6.3.1 EnergyEfficiency 133
6.3.2 Scalability 134
6.3.3 Adaptability 134
x Contents
6.3.4 LowLatency andPredictability 135
6.3.5 Reliability 135
6.4 Contention-FreeMACProtocols 135
6.4.1 Characteristics 136
6.4.2 Traffic-AdaptiveMedium Access 136
6.4.3 Y-MAC 137
6.4.4 DESYNC-TDMA 139
6.4.5 Low-EnergyAdaptive Clustering Hierarchy 140
6.4.6 LightweightMedium AccessControl 143
6.5 Contention-BasedMACProtocols 144
6.5.1 PowerAware Multi-AccesswithSignaling 144
6.5.2 SensorMAC 146
6.5.3 TimeoutMAC 146
6.5.4 Pattern MAC 148
6.5.5 Routing-EnhancedMAC 149
6.5.6 Data-Gathering MAC 151
6.5.7 PreambleSampling and WiseMAC 152
6.5.8 Receiver-InitiatedMAC 153
6.6 HybridMACProtocols 154
6.6.1 ZebraMAC 154
6.6.2 Mobility Adaptive Hybrid MAC 156
6.7 Summary 157
Exercises 157
References 161
7 Network Layer 163
7.1 Overview 163
7.2 RoutingMetrics 165
7.2.1 Commonly UsedMetrics 166
7.3 FloodingandGossiping 168
7.4 Data-CentricRouting 170
7.4.1 SensorProtocols for Information viaNegotiation 170
7.4.2 DirectedDiffusion 172
7.4.3 RumorRouting 174
7.4.4 Gradient-BasedRouting 175
7.5 ProactiveRouting 176
7.5.1 Destination-SequencedDistance Vector 176
7.5.2 Optimized Link State Routing 177
7.6 On-DemandRouting 178
7.6.1 AdHoc On-DemandDistance Vector 178
7.6.2 DynamicSource Routing 179
7.7 HierarchicalRouting 180
7.8 Location-BasedRouting 183
7.8.1 Unicast Location-BasedRouting 183
7.8.2 Multicast Location-BasedRouting 188
7.8.3 Geocasting 189
Contents xi
7.9 QoS-BasedRoutingProtocols 192
7.9.1 Sequential Assignment Routing 192
7.9.2 SPEED 193
7.9.3 Multipath Multi-SPEED 194
7.10 Summary 196
Exercises 197
References 203
Part Three: NODE AND NETWORK MANAGEMENT
8 Power Management 207
8.1 LocalPowerManagementAspects 208
8.1.1 ProcessorSubsystem 208
8.1.2 Communication Subsystem 209
8.1.3 BusFrequencyand RAM Timing 210
8.1.4 ActiveMemory 210
8.1.5 PowerSubsystem 212
8.2 DynamicPowerManagement 216
8.2.1 Dynamic Operation Modes 216
8.2.2 Dynamic Scaling 219
8.2.3 Task Scheduling 222
8.3 ConceptualArchitecture 222
8.3.1 ArchitecturalOverview 223
Exercises 225
References 227
9 Time Synchronization 229
9.1 ClocksandtheSynchronizationProblem 229
9.2 TimeSynchronizationinWirelessSensorNetworks 231
9.2.1 Reasonsfor Time Synchronization 231
9.2.2 Challengesfor Time Synchronization 232
9.3 BasicsofTimeSynchronization 234
9.3.1 Synchronization Messages 234
9.3.2 Nondeterminism of Communication Latency 236
9.4 TimeSynchronizationProtocols 237
9.4.1 ReferenceBroadcasts Using Global SourcesofTime 237
9.4.2 LightweightTree-BasedSynchronization 238
9.4.3 Timing-syncProtocol for Sensor Networks 239
9.4.4 Flooding Time Synchronization Protocol 240
9.4.5 Reference-BroadcastSynchronization 242
9.4.6 Time-DiffusionSynchronization Protocol 244
9.4.7 Mini-Sync andTiny-Sync 245
Exercises 246
References 247