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Fundamentals of Corrosion: Mechanisms, Causes, and Preventative Methods (Corrosion technology) PDF

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Fundamentals of CORROSION Mechanisms, Causes, and Preventative Methods Fundamentals of CORROSION Mechanisms, Causes, and Preventative Methods Philip A. Schweitzer Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number: 978-1-4200-6770-5 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmit- ted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright. com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data Schweitzer, Philip A. Fundamentals of corrosion : mechanisms, causes, and preventative methods / Philip A. Schweitzer. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4200-6770-5 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Building materials--Corrosion. 2. Corrosion and anti-corrosives. I. Title. TA418.74.S3847 2010 620.1’1223--dc22 2009028737 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Contents List of Figures ........................................................................................................xv List of Tables ........................................................................................................ xix Preface ................................................................................................................. xxiii 1 Introduction .....................................................................................................1 1.1 Economic Losses ...................................................................................1 1.2 Indirect Losses .......................................................................................2 1.2.1 Shutdown ..................................................................................2 1.2.2 Contamination..........................................................................2 1.2.3 Loss of Product .........................................................................3 1.2.4 Loss of Effciency .....................................................................3 1.2.5 Environmental Damage ..........................................................3 1.2.6 Overdesign ................................................................................3 1.3 Conservation Losses .............................................................................3 1.4 Nonmetallic Materials ..........................................................................4 1.5 Summary ................................................................................................4 2 Corrosion Mechanisms .................................................................................5 2.1 Cell Potentials ........................................................................................7 2.2 Types of Local Cell Formations ...........................................................8 2.2.1 Dissimilar Electrode Cells ......................................................9 2.2.2 Concentration Cells .................................................................9 2.2.3 Differential Temperature Cells ............................................ 10 2.2.4 Oxygen Concentration Cells ................................................ 11 2.2.5 Metal Ion Concentration Cells ............................................. 11 2.3 Potential–pH Diagrams ...................................................................... 11 2.4 Polarization .......................................................................................... 14 2.4.1 Activation Polarization ......................................................... 15 2.4.2 Concentration Polarization ................................................... 17 2.5 Measuring Polarization ...................................................................... 19 2.5.1 Anodic Polarization ............................................................... 21 2.6 Other Factors Affecting Corrosion ...................................................23 2.7 Corrosion Rate Measurement ............................................................25 2.7.1 Corrosion Rate Expressions ..................................................25 3 Forms of Metallic Corrosion ...................................................................... 27 3.1 General (Uniform) Corrosion ............................................................ 27 3.1.1 Passive Film on Iron ..............................................................28 3.1.2 Passive Film on Nickel .......................................................... 29 3.1.3 Passive Film on Austenitic Stainless Steel .......................... 29 v vi Contents 3.1.4 Passive Film on Copper......................................................... 29 3.1.5 Passive Film on Aluminum. .................................................30 3.1.6 Passive Film on Titanium .....................................................30 3.1.7 Passive Film on Tantalum. ....................................................30 3.1.8 Uniform Corrosion Rates. .....................................................30 3.1.9 Protective Measures .............................................................. 31 3.2 Intergranular Corrosion. .................................................................... 32 3.2.1 Austenitic Stainless Steels .................................................... 32 3.2.2 Ferritic Stainless Steels. .........................................................35 3.2.3 Other Alloys ...........................................................................35 3.3 Galvanic Corrosion .............................................................................36 3.3.3 Preventive Measures .............................................................38 3.4 Crevice Corrosion ...............................................................................38 3.4.1 Preventive Measures .............................................................40 3.5 Pitting Corrosion. ................................................................................ 41 3.5.1 Preventive Measures .............................................................43 3.6 Erosion Corrosion ...............................................................................44 3.6.1 Preventive Measures .............................................................45 3.7 Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC). .....................................................46 3.7.1 Preventive Measures ............................................................. 49 3.8 Biological Corrosion............................................................................50 3.8.1 Preventive Measures .............................................................54 3.9 Selective Leaching. .............................................................................. 55 3.9.1 Preventive Measures ............................................................. 57 3.10 Hydrogen Damage. ............................................................................. 57 3.10.1 Sources of Hydrogen ............................................................. 58 3.10.2 Types of Hydrogen Damage. ................................................ 59 3.10.2.1 Hydrogen Embrittlement ...................................... 59 3.10.2.2 Hydrogen Blistering. .............................................. 62 3.10.2.3 Flakes, Fisheyes, and Shatter Cracks. ..................63 3.10.2.4 Hydrogen Attack ....................................................63 3.10.3 Preventive Measures .............................................................65 3.10.3.1 Hydrogen Blistering. ..............................................65 3.10.3.2 Hydrogen Embrittlement ......................................66 3.10.3.3 Hydrogen Attack .................................................... 67 3.11 Liquid Metal Attack. ...........................................................................68 3.11.1 Liquid Metal Embrittlement (LME) .................................... 69 3.11.1.1 Requirements for Embrittlement ......................... 69 3.11.1.2 Factors Infuencing LME ....................................... 71 3.11.1.3 Delayed Failure. ......................................................72 3.11.1.4 Preventive Measures. .............................................72 3.11.2 Corrosion by Liquid Metals .................................................72 3.12 Exfoliation ............................................................................................ 73 3.12.1 Preventive Measures ............................................................. 74 3.13 Corrosion Fatigue ................................................................................ 74 Contents vii 3.13.1 Preventive Measures. ............................................................ 75 3.14 Filiform Corrosion. ............................................................................. 75 3.14.1 Preventive Measures. ............................................................ 76 References ....................................................................................................... 76 4 Atmospheric Corrosion ...............................................................................77 4.1 Atmospheric Types ............................................................................. 78 4.2 Factors Affecting Atmospheric Corrosion....................................... 79 4.2.1 Time of Wetness .....................................................................80 4.2.1.1 Adsorption Layers ..................................................80 4.2.1.2 Phase Layers ............................................................ 81 4.2.2 Composition of Surface Electrolyte .....................................83 4.2.2.1 Oxygen .....................................................................83 4.2.2.2 SO ............................................................................83 x 4.2.2.3 NO ...........................................................................83 x 4.2.2.4 Chlorides .................................................................84 4.2.2.5 CO ............................................................................84 2 4.2.2.6 Concentration of Different Species ......................84 4.2.3 Temperature ............................................................................84 4.2.4 Initial Exposure ......................................................................85 4.2.5 Sheltering ................................................................................85 4.2.6 Wind Velocity .........................................................................86 4.2.7 Nature of Corrosion Products ..............................................86 4.2.8 Pollutants Present .................................................................. 87 4.3 Mechanisms of Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals ........................ 89 4.3.1 Damp Atmospheric Corrosion (Adsorption Layers) ........90 4.3.2 Wet Atmospheric Corrosion (Phase Layers) ...................... 92 4.3.2.1 Dew .......................................................................... 92 4.3.2.2 Rain .......................................................................... 92 4.3.2.3 Fog ............................................................................ 93 4.3.3 Deposit of Pollutants ............................................................. 93 4.4 Corrosion Products ............................................................................. 94 4.5 Specifc Atmospheric Corrodents ..................................................... 96 4.5.1 Sulfur-Containing Compounds ........................................... 97 4.5.2 Nitrogen-Containing Compounds ......................................99 4.5.3 Chlorine-Containing Compounds .................................... 100 4.5.4 Carbon Dioxide (CO ) .......................................................... 101 2 4.5.5 Oxygen (O ) ........................................................................... 101 2 4.5.6 Indoor Atmospheric Compounds ..................................... 101 4.6 Summary ............................................................................................ 101 4.7 Resistance of Specifc Metals and Alloys to Atmospheric Corrosion ............................................................................................ 102 4.7.1 Carbon Steel .......................................................................... 102 4.7.2 Weathering Steels................................................................. 104 4.7.3 Zinc ........................................................................................ 106 viii Contents 4.7.4 Zinc and Zinc Alloy Coatings on Steel. ............................109 4.7.4.1 Zinc-Aluminum Hot Dip Coatings.................... 111 4.7.4.2 Zinc-Aluminum Thermally Sprayed Coatings ................................................................. 111 4.7.4.3 Zinc-Iron Alloy Coatings .................................... 112 4.7.4.4 Cast Zinc Alloys ................................................... 112 4.7.5 Copper ................................................................................... 112 4.7.6 Copper Alloys ....................................................................... 114 4.7.6.1 Brasses .................................................................... 114 4.7.6.2 Bronzes .................................................................. 116 4.7.6.3 Copper-Nickel Alloys .......................................... 116 4.7.7 Aluminum Alloys ................................................................ 116 4.7.7.1 Protective Measures ............................................. 120 4.7.7.2 Applications .......................................................... 121 4.7.8 Stainless Steel ....................................................................... 122 4.7.8.1 Austenitic Grades ................................................. 123 4.7.8.2 Ferritic Grades ...................................................... 124 4.7.8.3 Martensitic Grades ............................................... 124 4.7.8.4 Duplex Grades ...................................................... 125 4.7.9 Nickel ..................................................................................... 125 4.7.10 Monel Alloy .......................................................................... 125 4.7.11 Inconel Alloy 600 ................................................................. 125 4.7.12 Inconel Alloy 625, Incoloy Alloy 800, Incoloy Alloy 825 ................................................................................ 126 4.8 Atmospheric Corrosion of Nonmetals ........................................... 126 4.8.1 Plastics ................................................................................... 126 4.8.1.1 Thermoplastics ..................................................... 127 4.8.1.2 Thermosets ............................................................ 129 4.8.2 Elastomers ............................................................................. 133 4.8.3 Masonry Materials ............................................................... 134 4.8.3.1 Protecting Concrete ............................................. 137 4.8.3.2 Coating Selection .................................................. 139 4.8.3.3 Polymer Concrete ................................................. 140 4.8.3.4 Mortars and Grouts .............................................. 140 4.8.4 Ceramics ................................................................................ 141 4.8.4.1 Forms of Corrosion .............................................. 143 4.8.4.2 Corrosion of Specifc Ceramics .......................... 145 4.8.5 Wood ...................................................................................... 145 4.8.5.1 Plywood ................................................................. 149 4.8.5.2 Reconstituted Wood Products ............................ 150 4.8.5.3 Applied Exterior Wood Finishes ........................ 151 4.8.6 Indoor Atmospheric Corrosion .......................................... 153 References ..................................................................................................... 154 Contents ix 5 Corrosion of Polymer (Plastic) Materia.l.s.. ......................................1..5.7. 5.1 Radiation ............................................................................................ 158 5.2 Permeation ......................................................................................... 159 5.3 Absorption ......................................................................................... 163 5.4 Thermoplasts (Thermoplastic Polymers) ....................................... 166 5.5 Thermoset Polymers ......................................................................... 167 5.6 Environmental Cracking .................................................................. 169 6 Corrosion of Linings .................................................................................. 171 6.1 Liquid Applied Linings .................................................................... 172 6.1.1 Design of the Vessel ............................................................. 172 6.1.2 Lining Selection ................................................................... 176 6.1.3 Lining Application ............................................................... 181 6.1.4 Cure of the Applied Lining ................................................ 182 6.1.5 Causes of Coating Failure ................................................... 182 6.2 Sheet Linings ..................................................................................... 183 6.2.1 Shell Design .......................................................................... 184 6.2.2 Considerations in Liner Selection ...................................... 185 6.2.2.1 Bonded Linings .................................................... 186 6.2.2.2 Unbonded Linings ............................................... 187 6.2.3 Design Considerations ........................................................ 188 6.2.3.1 Permeation ............................................................. 188 6.2.3.2 Absorption............................................................. 190 6.2.4 Inspection of the Lining ...................................................... 191 6.2.5 Causes of Lining Failure ..................................................... 192 6.2.5.1 Liner Selection ...................................................... 192 6.2.5.2 Inadequate Surface Preparation ......................... 192 6.2.5.3 Thermal Stresses .................................................. 192 6.2.5.4 Permeation ............................................................. 192 6.2.5.5 Absorption............................................................. 193 6.2.5.6 Welding Flaws ...................................................... 193 6.2.5.7 Debonding ............................................................. 193 6.2.5.8 Operation ............................................................... 193 6.2.5.9 Environmental Stress Cracking ......................... 193 6.3 Elastomeric Linings .......................................................................... 194 7 Corrosion of Paint ....................................................................................... 197 7.1 Mechanisms of Protection ............................................................... 198 7.2 Composition of Paint ........................................................................200 7.2.1 Binder.....................................................................................200 7.2.2 Pigments ................................................................................ 201 7.2.3 Solvents .................................................................................. 202 7.2.4 Additives ............................................................................... 204 7.2.5 Fillers (Extenders) ................................................................ 206 7.3 Causes of Bond and Coating Failures ............................................ 206

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