Fundamentals of Aquacultural Engineering

362 Pages·1995·16.2 MB·English

by  Thomas B. Lawson (auth.)

Fundamentals of
Hquacultural Engineering
Fundamentals of
Hquacultural Engineering
Thomas H.
~awson
Department of Biological Engineering
Lou isiana State University
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication
Lawson, Thomas B., 1943-
Fundamentals of aquacultural engineering / Thomas B. Lawson
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-1-4612-7578-7 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4613-0479-1
DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4613-0479-1
1. Aquacultural engineering. I. Title.
SH137 , L38 1994
639' .8--dc20 93-38073
CIP
Copyright c 1995 by Chapman & Hall
Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover 1st edition 1995
Second Printing 2002 by Kluwer Academic Publishers
Cover Photo courtesy of Dr. James W. Avault, Jr.,
Louisiana State University Agricultural Center
This printing is a digital duplication of the original edition.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical, photo-copying, recording,
or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 101 Philip Drive, Assinippi Park, Norwell, Massachusetts 02061
Printed on acid-free paper.
CONTENTS
Preface vii
I. Introduction 1
2. Water Quality and Environmental Requirements 12
3. Site Selection for Aquaculture 40
4. Water Supply 48
5. Aquaculture in Open Systems 58
6. Fluid Mechanics 84
7. Pumps 111
8. Flow Estimation and Measurement 133
9. Aquaculture in Ponds, Raceways, and Tanks 157
10. Recirculating Aquaculture Systems 192
11. Oxygen and Aeration 248
12. Sterilization and Disinfection 311
References 330
Appendix 347
Index 351
v
PREFACE
Aquaculture is the science and technology of balanced support from the biological and engi
producing aquatic plants and animals. It is not neering sciences. However, commercial aqua
new, but has been practiced in certain Eastern culture has become so complex that, in order to
cultures for over 2,000 years. However, the role be successful, one must also draw upon the ex
of aquaculture in helping to meet the world's pertise of biologists, engineers, chemists, econ
food shortages has become more recently ap omists, food technologists, marketing special
parent. ists, lawyers, and others. The multidisciplinary
The oceans of the world were once consid approach to aquaculture production became ap
ered sources of an unlimited food supply. Bio parent during the early 1990s. It is believed that
logical studies indicate that the maximum sus this trend will continue as aquaculture produc
tainable yield of marine species through the tion becomes more and more intensive in order
harvest of wild stock is 100 million MT (metric for the producer to squeeze as much product as
tons) per year. Studies also indicate that we are possible out of a given parcel of land.
rapidly approaching the maximum sustainable Although many aquaculture books exist, few
yield of the world's oceans and major freshwa explore the engineering aspects of aquaculture
ter bodies. Per capita consumption of fishery production. This book is a humble attempt to fill
products in the United States increased by about that void and bridge the gap between the tradi
25% during the 1980s, and it has increased con tional fishery biologist and the engineer. The
siderably in many other nations, for which cur primary aim is to concentrate on the technical
rent consumption figures are lacking. Experts engineering principles that are applicable to
predict that, at the present rate of population aquaculture systems. Aquacultural engineering
growth, by the year 2000, we will be hard is such a broad field that it is impossible to do
pressed to fill the food and fiber needs of the justice to all facets of the discipline in one text.
world's masses. Two means by which we may Therefore, I keep to the basic engineering fun
meet the world's future food needs are: (1) damentals that apply to aquaculture production
greater production of traditional agronomic and do not cover such complex topics as har
crops; and (2) aquaculture. vesting gear, harvesting vessels, processing,
Commercial aquaculture production lies in storage, transportation, etc. Biological cultural
the realm of biotechnology, which requires a practices are not discussed in detail since this
vii
viii Preface
infonnation is available from so many other pects, sltmg considerations, water supply,
sources. pumping, water flow measurement, open cul
Although this book is written primarily for ture systems, pond and raceway systems, closed
students and practicing aquacultural engineers, recirculating systems, aeration, oxygenation,
my intention was to write in basic enough tenns and disinfection.
that it can also be of benefit to fishery biolo The last chapter includes an extensive bibli
gists, aquaculturists, seafood technologists, en ography from which citations were obtained
trepreneurs, and others interested in aquacul and are used liberally throughout the book. This
ture. I have touched upon a variety of subjects, bibliography is a starting place for obtaining
covering some in greater depth than others, but additional infonnation, but it is by no means
still addressing each major topic in basic tenns. complete. I cited sources that, for the most part,
It was my intention that the reader could use this are easy to locate and avoided those that are
book to develop an understanding of aquacul very difficult or impossible to obtain. I drew
tural engineering fundamentals that would en heavily upon the expertise of many experts in
able him or her to solve more complex technical their respective fields: Dr. Fred Wheaton, Uni
problems. The reader should understand that, versity of Maryland; Dr. Claude Boyd, Auburn
where a description of a system or process is University; Dr. John Colt, James M. Montgom
presented, a generalized method is being de ery Consulting Engineers; Dr. Stephen Spotte;
scribed, and there is no one way to culture a Dr. Ron Malone, Louisiana State University;
particular species, nor is there one system that and many others to whom I am eternally
works best to the exclusion of all others. grateful.
The book begins with an introductory chap Grateful thanks are extended to my loving
ter that describes the commercialization of sev wife, Charlotte, to my friends and peers, to the
eral important species in the United States. This Louisiana State University Department of Bio
chapter discusses the importance of commercial logical and Agricultural Engineering, and to the
aquaculture and finishes with a brief summary Louisiana State University Agricultural Center
of the future of aquaculture. Chapters that fol for their support and encouragement throughout
low concern topics such as water quality as- the preparation of the manuscript.
Fundamentals of
RQuacultural Engineering
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The tenn aquaculture as used in this book refers they cover about 71 % of the earth's surface.
to the culture of finfish, shellfish, other aquatic However, studies indicate that the maximum
animals, and aquatic plants in either freshwater sustainable yield of marine species through cap
or salt water. The tenn has supplanted maricul ture fisheries is limited to 100 million metric
ture, which was once used to indicate the cul tons (MT) I per year. Controlled aquaculture
ture of animals and plants in marine or brackish production, on the other hand, can ensure a
water environments. Mariculture is no longer a steady and regular supply of food. Thus, fish
valid tenn, emphasized by the changing of the production worldwide can be increased consid
name of the World Mariculture Society to the erably with the planned input of modem tech
World Aquaculture Society several years ago. nology. The growth of aquaculture is likened to
Aquaculture is often equated to water farm the development of land-based food crops, and
ing or underwater agriculture, and is the pro aquaculture has the potential to be the second
duction of aquatic organisms for human con largest means of food production next to tradi
sumption. Most aquaculture takes place in tional agronomic food crops.
land-based farm ponds. In this respect, aqua The worldwide demand for fish and seafood
culture can easily be thought of as agriculture, is steadily rising. By the year 2000, aquaculture
and the emphasis of this book will be on aqua is projected to account for 25% of the world's
culture for the production of human food. How fishery production (Beach 1989). But aquacul
ever, aquaculture also encompasses the produc ture must compete with the domestic wild catch
tion of fish to be used in restocking programs, and imports for a share of the market. How
bait-fish production, tropical- and omamental much of the market aquaculture will be able to
fish production, and aquatic plant culture. capture depends upon price competitiveness
Many scientists feel that maximum produc and consumer demand. Aquaculture producers
tion through traditional agriculture is rapidly in the United States face fierce competition
approaching around the world. New human from foreign producers.
food sources are being sought to prevent food Continued aquaculture growth in the United
shortages for future generations. The oceans,
long considered to be unlimited food sources,
are logical environments for exploitation since 1. One metric ton = 2,205 lb.
2 Introduction
States could help reduce the demand for im aquaculture sector if the industry was to survive
ported fishery products and the trade deficit in and grow. Other engineering disciplines have
fishery products. It is estimated that, if per cap filled niches as needs arose. Today many chem
ita consumption of fishery products continues ical, civil, sanitary, environmental, and other
on its present rate of growth, and if the U.S. specialty engineers are involved with the aqua
population increases by approximately one mil culture industry. Any of these engineers may
lion people per year, then U.S. consumers call themselves aquacultural engineers.
would require an additional 680,000--907,000 The aquacultural engineer may find himself
MT (1.5 billion-2 billion Ib) of fishery products involved in endeavors other than those for the
by 1995. If domestic landings follow present production of food and fiber. The functions of
trends, they will be able to supply only 25-30% the industry also include the propagation of fish
of that demand. Thus, the remaining 70-75% for restocking programs; ornamental pool and
must be supplied either through imports or do aquarium fish; aquatic fish and/or plants used in
mestic aquaculture production. the pharmaceutical industry; aquatic organisms
for production of industrial products such as oil,
jewelry, or animal feed; and sport fish. Techno
ROLE OF THE ENGINEER logical advances in any of these subareas may
IN AQUACULTURE require an engineer's input.
Aquaculture was once viewed as only a minor
part of the fish and seafood industries. How NATURAL FISHERIES
ever, in recent years its impact has become sig
nificant if both the public and private aqua Fishery production from natural waters comes
culture sectors are considered. The artificial mainly from commercial and sport fisheries.
propagation of fish has become very complex This text focuses mainly on commercial food
over the years. Today's aquaculture technology fish production, therefore sport fisheries are not
demands a good understanding of the physical, addressed. Data on world commercial fishery
chemical, and biological processes necessary landings are tabulated by the Food and Agricul
for successful production. Because success de tural Organization (FAD) of the United Nations.
pends on a blend of expertise from many disci Figure I-I shows the world commercial land
plines, many government research institutions ings by continent in 1990. Total world landings
and the larger private companies take the of freshwater and marine fish and shellfish were
"teamwork" approach to aquaculture produc 97.2 million MT (214 billion lb) in that year.
tion. A team may consist of a fishery biologist, Figure 1-2 ranks the top 10 fishing nations in
a chemist, an economist, a marketing specialist, 1990. Japan led all nations, supplying 12% of
a legal advisor, and an engineer. Other special the world's total commercial fishery landings.
ists may be brought in as the need arises. Fishing in the United States has not received the
Aquacultural engineering can simply be de same emphasis as in other countries. Ranked
fined as the application of engineering princi fifth, the United States supplied only about 6%
ples to the production of food and fiber from of the world's total landings. Data for the U.S.
aquatic environments. The aquacultural engi commercial landings from 1980--1991 indicate
neering specialty developed as a spin-off from a very gradual, insignificant overall increase,
the agricultural engineering programs in several whereas the total world catch increased dramat
major universities in the United States in the ically over the same period. U.S. landings for
early 1970s. Aquaculture continues to be close the 50 states in 1991 totaled 4.3 million MT (9.5
ly aligned with the agriculture sector, and agri billion lb), excluding the weight of mollusk
cultural engineers long ago recognized the need shells, for a total value of over $3 billion
for blending the engineering sciences into the (USDA 1992b). At present, domestic aquacul-
Introduction 3
Asia
Su. A I11crica
Europc
SSR
o. & Ce. America
Africa
Oceania
Total
o 10 40 60 80 100 120
Million Metric Tons
Figure I-I. World landings by continent in 1991 (USDA 1992b).
ture provides only about 11 % of all fishery U.S. imports for the years 1980-1991 indi
products consumed in the United States, rela cate that stable commercial landings and a
tively little compared to domestic capture fish strong growth in demand have led to a rapid
eries or imports. increase in imports of fish and seafood products
over the past five years. U.S. imports grew from
0.95 million MT (2.1 billion Ib) in 1980 to 1.37
PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION million MT (3 billion lb) in 1991. Total dollar
value in 1991 was $5.7 billion, up $438 million
U.S. consumption of all edible fishery products from 1990 (USDA 1992b).
for 1975-1991 is shown in Figure 1-3. U.S. per
capita consumption2 of all edible fishery prod
ucts in 1991 was 6.8 kg (14.9 lb) compared to u.S.
AQUACULTURE
the worldwide average per capita consumption
of about 13 kg (FAO 1989). U.S. citizens con
Fish culture began in America in 1853 when
sume only about half as much fish and seafoods
Theodatus Garlick and H.A. Ackley were the
as their counterparts in other countries. Domes
first to fertilize the eggs of brook trout (Salveli
tic landings of edible fishery products have re
nus fontinalis). Until the early 1960s, commer
mained relatively stable, but consumer demand
cial fish culture in the United States consisted
for fish and shellfish is increasing.
principally of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri),
bait fish, and several warm-water species
(Parker 1989). A rapid growth in aquaculture
2. Derived by dividing the total amount of edible fish
ery products by the total civilian population. production began in the 1970s and, although at