Functional Communication: Analyzing the Nonlinguistic Skills of Individuals with Severe or Profound Handicaps

137 Pages·1991·4.04 MB·English

by  Maureen Green

Disorders of Human Learning,
Behavior, and Communication
Ronald L. Taylor and Les Sternberg
Series Editors
Les Sternberg
Editor
Functional
Communication
Analyzing the Nonlinguistic Skills
of Individuals with Severe or
Profound Handicaps
Springer-Verlag
New York Berlin Heidelberg London
Paris Tokyo Hong Kong Barcelona
Les Sternberg, Exceptional Student Education, College of Education,
Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida 33431-0991, USA
Series Editors: Ronald L. Taylor and Les Sternberg, Exceptional Student
Education, College of Education, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton,
Florida 33431-0991, USA
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Functional Communication: Analyzing the Nonlinguistic Skills of Individuals with
Severe or Profound Handicaps/Les Sternberg, editor
p. cm.-(Disorders of human learning, behavior, and
communication)
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN-13:978-1-4613-9013-8(alk. paper)
1. Communicative disorders in children. 2. Handicapped children
Language. 3. Nonverbal communication. I. Sternberg, Les.
II. Series.
RJ496.C67D46 1990
618.92'855-dc20 90-9539
Printed on acid-free paper
© 1991 Springer-Verlag New York Inc.
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1991
All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the
written permission ofthe publisher (Springer-Verlag New York, Inc., 175 Fifth Avenue, New
York, NY 10010, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly
analysis. Use in connection with any form of information and retrieval, electronic adaptation,
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veloped is forbidden.
The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, etc., in this publication, even
if the former are not especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign that such names, as
understood by the Trade Marks and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordingly be used freely
be anyone.
Typeset by Asco Trade Typesetting Ltd., Hong Kong.
9 8 765 432 1
ISBN-13:978-1-4613-9013-8 e-ISBN-13:978-1-4613-9011-4
DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4613-9011-4
Preface
The following monograph summarizes a research effort that was accom
plished through the joint sponsorship of the Sonoma Developmental Cen
ter (SDC) and the College of Education of Florida Atlantic University
(FAU). The sponsorship foIlowed a one-year coIlaborative exchange of
ideas that began in May of 1987 when I was asked to conduct a training
institute on prelanguage communication instruction at the developmental
center. Based upon ideas that were discussed during the institute, the staff
of Program Six (Communication Development Services) at SDC indicated
a strong desire and wilIingness to pursue collaborative research in the area
of prelanguage and nonlinguistic skills development of individuals with
various types and degrees of developmental disabilities. Our motives were
rather simple. For many years, interest in communication skills, especially
regarding individuals with handicaps, has had what we feel is a rather
narrow focus. That focus has been formal language development, with
research geared toward analyzing how one acquires or can be taught to
acquire language systems comprised of symbolic outputs which are gen
erative in nature (i.e., a finite number of symbols which can be used to
make an infinite number of statements). More recently, investigators have
turned their attention toward dichotomies that may exist regarding com
munication and language, and linguistic and nonlinguistic systems. This is
certainly noteworthy in that the field has come to realize that (1) language,
as we know it, may not be attainable by many individuals; and (2) we must
make available for these individuals other types of communication sys
tems. Although there appears to be a consensus in the field that com
munication as a process can be separated from language as a structure, the
differences between what is linguistic and nonlinguistic (and which systems
fit into each category) is not so clear cut. From the very beginning, we
realized that in the Sonoma Research Project we were not going to investi
gate formal language systems. Instead, we would be focusing our efforts on
communication skills. Differences of opinion not withstanding, we defined
those skills as nonlinguistic in nature because they were non-language
based (albeit, within the previous formal language construct). We realize
v
vi Preface
that readers of this monograph may not share our opinions that some of the
nonlinguistic exemplars investigated in the research project (especially
those that have a pragmatic base) are nonlinguistic.
Beginning with a joint presentation at a national conference in Decem
ber of 1987, our formal collaboration began. Discussions ensued regarding
the operation of future research projects, with a final realization that actual
project initiation would require that I be on-site at SOC for a protracted
period of time. Through the efforts of the administration of both SDC
Program Six and the FAU College of Education, an agreement was finally
reached prior to May 1988 for me to receive a Summer 1988 research
assignment to SOC.
Although the initial stages of the research project began during the Sum
mer of 1988, final data collection was not completed until March of 1989.
Although we attach significant importance to the results of the Sonoma
Research Project, we feel that these results will only have clinical signif
icance ifthey are translated into future applications. We certainly are look
ing forward to future collaborative efforts in this direction.
Les Sternberg
Acknowledgments
My experiences have indicated that pursuing collaborative research re
quires more than merely a team effort. This is especially the case when the
parties wishing to collaborate are separated by considerable distances.
There are many "behind the scenes" individuals who shared a major role
in the completion of this project.
Without the assistance and support of administrative personnel of the
Sonoma Developmental Center, especially Fred Valenzuela, Executive
Director of the Sonoma Developmental Center, and Markley Sutton,
Program Director of Program Six, this research project would have never
been completed, let alone started. They were both instrumental in gaining
necessary permissions and explaining the mission of the research project to
various SOC committees responsible for project clearance.
The speech clinicians of SOC Program 6, many of whom are authors of
selected chapters of the monograph, were invaluable, both as research in
vestigators and sounding-boards for ideas imbedded in the project. And
various staff members of units where research subjects were found should
be thanked for their patience and participation.
From my university, Norene Daly, Dean of the College of Education,
was extremely supportive in arranging for me to assume a research
appointment at SOC. She realized the importance that I attributed to the
research project and encouraged me to pursue the collaboration.
And finally, I owe a tremendous debt of gratitude to Jeffrey Schilit,
Director of the Institute for Research and Development in Teacher Educa
tion, and my former department chairperson. I have always been enthu
siastic about ideas concerning future research. Jeff has always shared that
enthusiasm. He has also been the pivotal person in helping me to put into
practice what was only in my mind. I thank him for being there.
vii
Contents
Preface ........................................................ v
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Contributors ................................................... xi
1. Theories of Communication Development 1
Maureen Green and Leslie Cobb
2. Research on Nonlinguistic Communication Functioning of
Individuals with Severe or Profound Handicaps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Robin Alvares, Irene Falor, and Lydia Smiley
3. Intervention Models to Develop Nonlinguistic Communication 38
Linda Lang and Eileen Uptmor
4. The Sonoma Research Project: Facilities, Population
Communication Needs, and Subjects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Markley S. Sutton
5. The Sonoma Research Project: Issues, Variables, and
Methods of Investigation .................................... 70
Les Sternberg
6. The Sonoma Research Project: Data Analysis Design
and Results ................................................. 97
Stephen B. Richards, John D. Morris, and Les Sternberg
7. The Sonoma Research Project: Discussion and Conclusions... 113
Les Sternberg
Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
IX
Contributors
Robin L. Alvares, M.S., C.C.C.-SLP, Human Development and Com
munication Sciences, Callier Center for Communication Disorders, Uni
versity of Texas at Dallas, Dallas, Texas 75235, USA
Leslie L. Cobb, B.S., M.A., Speech, Communication Disorders Program,
Sonoma Developmental Center, Eldridge, California 95431, USA
Irene M. Falor, B.A., M.A. Equiv., Communication Disorders Program,
Sonoma Developmental Center, Eldridge, California 95431, USA
Maureen Green, B.A., M.S., Communication Disorders Program, Sonoma
Developmental Center, Eldridge, California 95431, USA
Linda Lang, M.A. Speech Pathology, C.C.C.-SLP, Communication Dis
orders Program, Sonoma Developmental Center, Eldridge, California
95431, USA
John D. Morris, Ph.D., College of Education, Florida Atlantic University,
Boca Raton, Florida 33431, USA
Stephen B. Richards, M.A. Ed., Exceptional Student Education, College
of Education, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida 33431,
USA
Lydia R. Smiley, Ph.D., Exceptional Student Education, College of
Education, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida 33431,
USA
Les Sternberg, Ph.D., Exceptional Student Education, College of Educa
tion, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida 33431, USA
Markley S. Sutton, Ph.D., Communication and Social Department, Sono
ma Developmental Center, Department of Developmental Services,
Eldridge, California 95431, USA
Eileen M. Uptmor, M.A., Speech Pathology C.C.C.-SLP Communication
Disorders Program, Sonoma Developmental Center, Eldridge, Califor
nia 95431, USA
xi
1
Theories of Communication
Development
MAUREEN GREEN and LESLIE COBB
The development of language is often heralded as the hallmark accom
plishment of our species. Language is traditionally seen as a distinctly hu
man characteristic that separates us from other animals. It should not be
surprising that there is a plethora of research pertaining to this area, from
studies focusing on the forms and structure of fully developed language
systems to those that have focused on the development of language itself.
Many more recent research endeavors have focused on the origins and
development of communication systems or exemplars that may serve as
precursors to language. Although such studies have involved individuals
with and without handicaps, the former group has typically not included
those with severe or profound handicaps. Unfortunately, individuals who
had not even achieved the first rung of the linguistic (language-based) lad
der of development were generally left without an appropriate intervention
model, aside from one that was based on instructional behavioral pre
requisites to language (e.g., eye contact and attention span) or more auto
matic and potentially nonmeaningful systems (e.g., signs to address needs
pertaining to daily living skills).
With the emphasis on pragmatics, or the use of language in its social
context, and the relative explosion of infant research in the recent past, the
focus of research and practice has shifted from the study of language to the
much more broadly defined study of communication. It is now generally
recognized that infants master a number of communication skills before the
emergence of their first words (Bullowa, 1979; Halliday, 1975; Ziajka,
1981). This indicates that communication is not limited to mastery offormal
spoken or signed linguistic forms. Communication skills are accessible to
and demonstrated by even those who have not achieved the level of sym
bolic functioning required by language.
Many areas have merged with or contributed to the study of nonlinguis
tic and presymbolic communication: child development; developmental
psycholinguistics; cognitive development; special education; and even
philosophy, ethology, and cybernetics. Researchers from these different
fields have contributed conceptual and methodological frameworks and/
2 M. Green and L. Cobb
or looked directly at the behaviors of prelinguistic infants and individuals
with handicaps. Research has been particularly rich in the area of infant
behavior development. After attention focused on the prelanguage period,
the infant-once thought to possess so little in the way of organized
behavior-was seen to actually possess an array of cognitive, communica
tive, and social talents. The major difficulty is that all of these skills appear
to emerge simultaneously and with a great deal of overlap, precluding the
possibility of designating anyone behavior as specifically cognitive, social,
or communicative.
Research has also indicated that it is possible to consider the com
municative power and potential of presymbolic and nonlinguistic behaviors
in their own right and to trace a continuum of symbolic-linguistic develop
ment wherein some behaviors are identified as partially symbolic (Bates,
1979). Whether or not symbolic linguistic forms are employed, however, it
is generally agreed that communication involves meaning and intention.
Despite the problems that many individuals with severe or profound hand
icaps have regarding development of linguistic systems, there are many
possibilities for these individuals to express intention and share meaning
when nonlinguistic means of communication are demonstrated and readily
accepted.
With the above in mind, it is important to review theories pertaining
to communication development, especially those theories that focus on
nonlinguistic skills. What will become apparent are two points: (a) Non
linguistic skills development is best understood by viewing its relationship
to linguistic (language) development, and (b) the majority of theories con
cern the development and demonstration of skills of prelinguistic infants
rather than of nonlinguistic individuals who are severely or profoundly
handicapped.
From Language to Communicative Competence:
A Reverse Ontogeny
It is conventional to begin with Chomsky (1957, 1965) when discussing
theories of the acquisition of language. In his pioneering work, Chomsky
posited the existence of a language acquisition device, an innate linguistic
ability biologically inherent in every human. Lenneberg (1967) also theo
rized that language was an unfolding of an innate ability during some criti
cal period. Language input and environmental factors were seen to play
a part, but not to the extent held forth by behaviorists (Skinner, 1957).
Behaviorists tended to look at the acquisition of language as similar to
the learning of any other task, in terms of quantifiable controlling factors
such as antecedent and consequent environmental stimuli.
Chomsky is also known for his theory of transformational grammar,